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Biodiversity
29
e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccfc29.e

Like trees in a forest, kelps in the oceans shelter a wide variety of organisms.

Links to prior knowledge

Chapter preview
In Junior Science, you learned that scientists
study organisms by classifying them into
29.1 Diversity of life forms
different groups (Topics 3.1 and 3.2). This
chapter explores modern approaches to 29.2 Classifying organisms
classify and name organisms. Learning 29.3 The six kingdoms
about the development of the classification
systems will help you recognize that
29.4 Dichotomous keys
scientific knowledge is tentative and subject
to change.
 29 Biodiversity

Biodiversity of Hong Kong

Although Hong Kong is a small place, its diverse terrestrial and marine habitats are homes
to a wealth of plants and animals. Hong Kong is less than 1% of the area of Guangdong
Province, but we have over 20 species of amphibians, about one-third of the number
found in Guangdong. We have more than 540 species of birds, accounting for over one
third of the total species recorded in China. In our waters, there are 84 species of hard
corals, which is comparable to that in the Caribbean Sea!

Among our rich biodiversity, a number of the species recorded are endemic to Hong
Kong. Below are two examples.

 Hong Kong Camellia  Romer’s Tree Frog

Scientific name: Camellia hongkongensis Scientific name: Liuixalus romeri

Surf the net

To learn more about Hong Kong’s biodiversity, visit the website
e-aristo.hk/r/bioccstn2901.e
It contains a database of the species in Hong Kong and provides
information about field studies.

Think about …
1. What is biodiversity?
2. How do scientists classify organisms? What criteria do they use?
3. Instead of using common names for organisms, scientists use scientific names which
Answer
look more complicated. Why?
(Refer to p.A4 for answers.)

29- 2
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29 Biodiversity

Learning objective 29.1 Diversity of life forms

Appreciate the existence of
various life forms in the world, and
How many kinds of organisms are there on Earth? Scientists have
the different ways through which
organisms adapt to their habitats identified and named approximately 1.8 million kinds of organisms
so far. They estimate that the actual number may be as large as one
trillion (1×1012). The existence of the wide variety of life forms on
Earth is called biodiversity.

Different organisms live in different places. The place where an

organism lives is called its habitat. Organisms need to adapt to the
specific conditions in their habitats in order to survive. Some
examples are shown below.

a b c

The musk ox lives in the Artic. It has The fennec fox lives in the desert. It Cacti have spine-like leaves to
thick fur to reduce heat loss. has large ears to promote heat lost. minimize water loss. Some cacti
store water in their stems.

d e f

Mountain goats have strong Sharks have streamlined body to Barnacles live on rocky shores.
forelimbs and special hooves that reduce water resistance during They have a hard shell for
help them climb on cliffs. swimming. protection against strong waves.

Figure 29.1 Organisms show different ways of adaptation to their habitats.

Key point
1. Biodiversity refers to the wide variety of life forms on Earth.
2. Organisms living in different habitats need different adaptations.

biodiversity
habitat 29- 3
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29 Biodiversity

Learning objective 29.2 Classifying organisms

• Recognize the use of
classification systems and
binomial nomenclature A. The need for classification
• Be aware that modern
classification is based on the The sorting of things into groups is called classification. The branch
phylogenetic relationships of of biology that classifies and names organisms is called taxonomy.
organisms
A system of classification allows biologists to study the wide variety
• Appreciate that classification
systems are subject to change of organisms in a systematic way. It also helps in identification of
when new evidence appears organisms.

B. The history of classification

1. Linnaeus’s classification system

In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–
1778) classified organisms into groups based on their structural
and physiological similarities. He established a hierarchical
classification system with seven levels: kingdom, phylum (plural:
phyla), class, order, family, genus (plural: genera) and species.

A kingdom is the highest level of grouping in Linnaeus’s classification

system. Organisms sharing the most fundamental similarities are in
the same kingdom. Each kingdom is divided into different phyla. A
phylum is a smaller group than a kingdom. Organisms in the same
phylum share more characteristics in common than at the kingdom
level. Phyla are divided into classes and so on down to the level of
Figure 29.2 Carolus Linnaeus species.

Figure 29.3 on the next page shows the classification of the tiger
under Linnaeus’s classification system as an example.

A group in any level of the hierarchy of classification is called a

taxon (plural: taxa). For example, Mammalia is a taxon at the class
level. Note that from the kingdom to the species level, the number
of organisms in each taxon decreases while their similarities
increase.

classification phylum family taxon

29- 4 taxonomy class genus
kingdom order species
 29 Biodiversity

Level Shared characteristic

Kingdom: Animalia They are heterotrophs.

Phylum: Chordata They have a notochord (becomes

backbone in vertebrates).

Class: Mammalia They have mammary

glands.

Order: Carnivora They have modified teeth

which allow them to shear
flesh from prey.
Decreasing
Family: Felidae They have retractable claws numbers of
which can be drawn into organisms with
their paws. increasing
similarities
Genus: Panthera They have specially adapted
larynx which allow them to
roar.

Species: Panthera They can interbreed and

tigris produce fertile offspring.

Figure 29.3 Classification of the tiger under Linnaeus’s classification system

Species is the basic unit of classification. Members of the same

species have the greatest number of characteristics in common.
They can interbreed to produce fertile offspring that can reproduce.

Sometimes members from two different species can reproduce. For

example, donkeys and horses are classified as two different species.
They can interbreed to produce mules. However, mules cannot
produce offspring, i.e. they are infertile.

Donkey Horse Mule

Figure 29.4 Donkeys and houses are different species. They produce mules when they breed, but
mules are infertile.

Animalia Carnivora
Chordata Felidae 29- 5
Mammalia Panthera
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29 Biodiversity

2. Linnaeus’s naming system

Linnaeus also established the binomial nomenclature, a system for
naming organisms. By this system, each organism is given a
scientific name which consists of two Latin words. The first word
indicates the genus and is called the genus name. The second word
is the species name.

For example, the scientific name of modern humans is Homo

sapiens. Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and
their extinct relatives. Although the genus name can be used on its
own, the species name never appears on its own.

There are some rules for writing a scientific name:

1. The genus name is written first. It begins with a capital letter.

2. The species name follows the genus name. It begins with a

small letter.

3. When printed, the scientific name is shown in italics.

4. When written by hand, the scientific name should be underlined.

For example:

5. After a scientific name has been used once in a piece of text, it

can be abbreviated to the initial letter of the genus name with
the full species name (e.g. H. sapiens for Homo sapiens).

Scientific names are accepted by people of all languages (i.e.

universal) and each name is unique to one species. This avoids the
confusion that often arises from the use of a common name to refer
to different species in different places, or the existence of several
common names for a single species.

binomial nomenclature species name Homo sapiens

29- 6 scientific name Homo
genus name
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29 Biodiversity

e-museum 3. From Linnaeus to Woese—development of

Development of
classification
classification systems
systems
e-aristo.hk/r/ Science is affected by the technology and equipment available at
bioccem2901.e the time. Since the establishment of Linnaeus’ classification
system, knowledge about organisms has increased. The
classification system has been modified to accommodate new
knowledge. The development of the classification system
demonstrates that science is tentative and subject to change.

Year of
1735 1866 1937 1956 1969 1977 1990
proposal

Scientist Linnaeus Haeckel Chatton Copeland Whittaker Woese Woese

System 2 kingdoms 3 kingdoms 2 empires 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 6 kingdoms 3 domains

Eubacteria Bacteria
Prokaryota Prokaryota Prokaryota
Archaebacteria Archaea

Protista Protoctista Protista Protista

Group
Fungi Fungi
Vegetabilia Plantae Eukaryota Plantae Eukarya
Plantae Plantae

Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Figure 29.5 The development of the classification system

In Linnaeus’s classification system, organisms were classified as

either plants (in the kingdom Vegetabilia, later called Plantae) or
animals (in the kingdom Animalia). The classification was mainly
based on structural and physiological features of organisms.

x1000 With improved microscopes, scientists discovered unicellular

microorganisms that could not fit in either the plant or animal
kingdoms. For example, Euglena (Figure 29.6) contains chlorophyll
and carries out photosynthesis like plants do, but it can also move
and search for food like animals.

In 1866, Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) proposed a new kingdom,

Protista, to accommodate all unicellular organisms, which are
neither plants nor animals. A three-kingdom system was
established.
flagellum for
swimming

Figure 29.6 Euglena

Plantae Euglena
Animalia 29- 7
Protista
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The invention of electron microscopes in the 1930s allows scientists

DNA lying free in
the cytoplasm
to study cells in greater details. In 1937, Edouard Chatton (1883–
1947) distinguished between eukaryotes and prokaryotes (e.g.
bacteria, Figure 29.7) based on the presence or absence of a nucleus
and other membrane-bounded organelles. In 1956, Herbert
Copeland (1902–1968) proposed a four-kingdom system, including
prokaryotes in a new kingdom, Prokaryota.

Until the latter half the 20th century, fungi were classified as plants.
However, studies have revealed significant differences between
fungi and plants. For example, fungi do not have chlorophyll as
plants do, and their cell walls have different compositions (see
x5500 Section 29.3). In 1969, Robert Whittaker (1920–1980) proposed
putting fungi in their own kingdom, Fungi. A five-kingdom system
Figure 29.7 TEM of the
bacterium, Escherichia coli was established.

Modern classification systems reflect phylogenetic

relationships
Link it
More recently, biologists have recognized that classification should
You will learn about the origin of reflect evolutionary relationships (also called phylogenetic
life and the theory of evolution in
Chapters 30 and 31. relationships) rather than structural similarities. The theory of
evolution suggests that all organisms have a common ancestor, and
that the ancestor evolved into different species by accumulating
genetic variations over a long period of time.

Advances in genetic technologies in the 1970s allowed biologists

to study the genetic material of different organisms, and to make
use of genetic similarities and differences to measure relatedness.
It is assumed that organisms that share more genetic similarities
have a closer phylogenetic relationship.

In 1977, Carl Woese (1928–2012) proposed dividing prokaryotes

into Eubacteria and Archaebacteria because of some important
genetics differences between the two groups of organisms. This
gave rise to a six-kingdom system, which includes the following
kingdoms: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
Figure 29.8 Carl Woese and Animalia.

Fungi Archaebacteria Prokaryota

29- 8 phylogenetic relationship
Eubacteria
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29 Biodiversity

Woese was not completely satisfied with the six-kingdom system

because it failed to show that:

all four eukaryote kingdoms are more similar to each other than
to the two prokaryote kingdoms.

the two prokaryote kingdoms are as different from each other

as they are from the eukaryote kingdoms.

To show these similarities and differences, Woese grouped the six

kingdoms into three domains, a level higher than the kingdom. The
kingdoms Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are raised to the level of
domains, Bacteria and Archaea, respectively. The other four
eukaryote kingdoms make up the third domain, Eukarya.

Woese also found that organisms belonging to Eukarya are more

similar to Archaea than they are to Bacteria. Figure 29.9 is a
phylogenetic tree based on his studies. In this tree, organisms that
are believed to have a closer phylogenetic relationship are put
closer together. It reflects that Eukarya and Archaea have a more
recent common ancestor than they do with Bacteria.

Eukarya

Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

Archaea

Bacteria

Archaebacteria

Eubacteria

common ancestor

Figure 29.9 The modern classification system reflects that the common ancestor first gave rise to Bacteria,
Archaea came next, and then the four kingdoms of Eukarya arose.

domain Eukarya
Bacteria 29- 9
Archaea
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29 Biodiversity

Applying concepts

Activity 29.1 Deducing phylogenetic relationships from classification

The table below shows the classification of four species in the order Primates.

Human Common chimpanzee Bonobo Ring-tailed lemur

Order Primates Primates Primates Primates

Family Hominidae Hominidae Hominidae Lemuridae
Genus Homo Pan Pan Lemur
Species Homo sapiens Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Lemur catta

1. Use the information from the table above to deduce which two species have the closest phylogenetic
relationship. Explain your answer.

2. Complete the phylogenetic tree below by filling in the blanks with the name of correct species.

Lemur catta

common ancestor

3. On the phylogenetic tree, mark with an X the position of the most recent common ancestor of Homo
sapiens and Pan troglodytes.

Primates
29- 10 Hominidae
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29 Biodiversity

Key point
1. Classification allows biologists to study organisms in a systematic way. It
also helps in identification of organisms.
2. Linnaeus classified organisms with similar characteristics in groups arranged
in seven levels:
Kingdom  Phylum  Class  Order  Family  Genus  Species

decreasing numbers of organisms with increasing similarities

3. A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.
4 The scientific name of a species consists of two words. The first word is the
genus name. The second word is the species name.
5. The modern classification system reflects phylogenetic relationships
among organisms. Organisms are classified into three domains and six
kingdoms:

Domain Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Kingdom Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Checkpoint
1. Which of the following levels of classification includes organisms with
the highest genetic variation?
A. Class
B. Family
C. Order
D. Phylum

2. Below are the scientific names of four species of shrimps:

(1) Leptochela japonicus
(2) Metapenaeus japonicus
(3) Metapenaeus joyneri
(4) Metapenaeopsis dura
Which two of the above species should have the closest phylogenetic
relationship?
A. (1) and (2)
B. (1) and (4)
C. (2) and (3)
D. (3) and (4)

HKDSEE Practice Paper Biology Paper 1 Section A Q16

29- 11
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29 Biodiversity

Learning objective 29.3 The six kingdoms

Classify organisms into the six
kingdoms
A. Eubacteria
Remember this Eubacteria is the only kingdom in the domain Bacteria.
The name ‘Eubacteria’ means Organisms comprising this kingdom are those we commonly
‘true bacteria’.
refer to as bacteria. They are found almost everywhere.

Bacteria are unicellular and very small (typically 0.5 to 5.0 μm in

length). They can only be viewed under the microscope at high
power. They come in various shapes (Figure 29.10).

a b c

(x11,000) (x7500) (x8500)

Spherical Rod-shaped Spiral

Figure 29.10 Bacteria in different shapes

They are prokaryotes. They have no true nucleus or other

membrane-bound organelles. They have a circular chromosome
lying free in the cytoplasm. There are also small rings of DNA
called plasmid (Figure 29.11).

They have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan. Some bacteria

have a capsule outside the cell wall.

Some have flagella (singular: flagellum) for locomotion.

cell membrane
cell wall
(made of peptidoglycan)
flagellum

capsule
plasmid

bacterial chromosome
cytoplasm

Figure 29.11 Structure of a bacterium

plasmid flagellum
29- 12 peptidoglycan
capsule
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29 Biodiversity

Remember this Some bacteria are autotrophs. For example, cyanobacteria

(formerly called blue-green algae) contain chlorophyll and can
Cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll
but not chloroplasts. carry out photosynthesis to make their own food. Most bacteria
are heterotrophs. They need to obtain organic nutrients from
outside.
They reproduce asexually by binary fission.
Some bacteria can cause diseases, e.g. cholera and tetanus.
However, most bacteria are harmless or even beneficial. For
example, some bacteria live in our intestines and help us use
the nutrients from the food we eat.

B. Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria is the only kingdom in the domain Archaea.
Like bacteria, archaebacteria are unicellular prokaryotes. Their
size is smaller than bacteria.
Most archaebacteria have a cell wall, but the composition of
their cell wall lacks peptidoglycan and is different from that of
bacteria.
The lipids that made up the cell membrane of archaebacteria
are unique and different from those in other organisms.
Some archaebacteria are autotrophs, but most are heterotrophs.
Like bacteria, they reproduce asexually.
Many archaebacteria live in extreme environments where few
or no other organisms survive. They can be found in hot
springs (Figure 29.12), highly salty water, and in oxygen-free
environments such as marshes and the digestive tract of animals
(Figure 29.13).
SEM (x6800)

SEM (x2000)

Figure 29.12 Archaebacteria such as those in the genus Figure 29.13 Cattle have methanogens (a type
Sulfolobus can live in the acidic and sulfur-rich hot of archaebacteria) in their stomach to help them
spring. The pigments in the archaebacteria give the hot digest plant cellulose, and they belch frequently
spring vivid colours. to release the methane produced.

cyanobacteria Sulfolobus
cholera methanogen 29- 13
tetanus
 29 Biodiversity

C. Protista
Members of kingdom Protista are called protists. They are
eukaryotes, meaning that their cells have a true nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles.
Most protists are unicellular. They are so small that they can
only be viewed with a microscope. Others are multicellular and
can be large (e.g. kelps).

Link it They live mainly in water or moist environments. Some are

parasites living inside other organisms.
Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic
protists, some of which cause They produce asexually or sexually depending on their type
malaria in humans (see Chapter
and environment.
23).
Plant-like protists are called algae. They are autotrophs that
can carry out photosynthesis to make food. Examples include
Spirogyra and kelps.
Animal-like protists are called protozoans. Protozoans, such as
Amoeba and Paramecium, are heterotrophs. They can move
from place to place.
Fungus-like protists include slime moulds. They absorb
nutrients from dead organisms or non-living organic matter,
and reproduce by spores.

a b c

(x270) (x160)
Spirogyra is a genus of multicellular Kelps are large brown algae. They Amoeba has pseudopodia for
green algae. Each of the cells has a can be as large as trees but do not movement and feeding.
ribbon-shaped chloroplast. have true roots, stems or leaves.

d e

(x200)
Paramecium moves by cilia. Slime moulds are usually found in
damp, shady places.
Figure 29.14 Examples of protists

protist Spirogyra
29- 14 alga slime mould
protozoan
 29 Biodiversity

a
D. Fungi
Fungi (singular: fungus) are eukaryotes. Most fungi, such as
mushroom and bread mould, are multicellular. Yeast is an
example of unicellular fungi.

They have a cell wall made of chitin (a nitrogen-containing

Mushrooms polysaccharide).
b
They have no chlorophyll and cannot produce their own food.

Multicellular fungi live as a mesh of thread-liked filaments

collectively called a mycelium (plural: mycelia). Each filament is
called a hypha (plural: hyphae) (Figure 29.16).

(x80) Most fungi are saprophytes, which feed on dead organisms or

Bread mould non-living organic matter. Hyphae secrete enzymes onto the
c food and digest it outside their body. Soluble nutrients are then
absorbed into the cells. Saprophytic fungi play an important
role in the recycling of materials in an ecosystem.

Some fungi are parasites that may cause diseases such as

athlete’s foot by living in human skin.
(x1100)
Most fungi reproduce by forming spores (Figure 29.17). Yeasts
Yeasts
reproduce by budding.
Figure 29.15 Examples of fungi

spores
fruiting
body
hyphae

SEM (x600)

mycelium

Figure 29.16 The body of a mushroom consists of an Figure 29.17 A mushroom

aboveground reproductive structure (the fruiting body) releasing spores
that extends from a belowground mycelium. Both parts
are made of hyphae.

mycelium budding chitin

hypha athlete's foot 29- 15
spore
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29 Biodiversity

E. Plantae
Video The kingdom Plantae consists of different types of plants that
Hong Kong are multicellular eukaryotes.
plants and fungi
e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccuv2901.e Plants are autotrophs. They have chlorophyll for carrying out
photosynthesis.

Plant cells have cell walls made up of cellulose.

Plants can be classified into two main groups—vascular plants

and non-vascular plants. Vascular plants have specialized
transport tissues, called vascular tissues, while non-vascular
plants do not. Vascular plants can be further classified into
smaller groups depending on whether they produce seeds or
not, and the features of their seeds (Figure 29.18).

Plants

without with
vascular tissue vascular tissue

Non-vascular plants
Vascular plants
(e.g. mosses)

do not produce
seeds
produce seeds
Ferns with naked with seeds enclosed
seeds in an ovary

Conifers
Flowering plants
(e.g. pine)

with one cotyledon with two

(seed leaf) cotyledons

Monocotyledonous plants Dicotyledonous plants

(e.g. grass, lily) (e.g. rose)

Figure 29.18 Classification of plants

vascular plant cotyledon

29- 16 non-vascular plant
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29 Biodiversity

1. Non-vascular plants
Non-vascular plants are generally small because they lack
vascular tissues to support the plant body against gravity.

They have simple leaves and stems, but have no true roots.
Instead, they have root-like rhizoids to help them anchor to the
substrate (Figure 29.19).

They usually live in damp, shady places. Water and minerals can
be absorbed by the whole surface of the plant. Materials move
from cells to cells within the plant by diffusion and osmosis.

They reproduce by spores.

Examples include mosses.

capsule
(spore-producing
structure)

simple leaf for

photosynthesis

rhizoid for
anchorage
Figure 29.19 Structure of moss Figure 29.20 Mosses grow as a mat on the forest floor.

2. Vascular plants
Vascular plants have vascular tissues for the transport of
materials and support.

They have true roots, leaves and stems.

In general, they can grow larger and taller than non-vascular

plants.

Most of them are well adapted to dry habitats.

rhizoid
moss 29- 17
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29 Biodiversity

a. Ferns
Ferns are seedless vascular plants.

Most ferns have large, feathery leaves. The young leaves are
curled.

They reproduce by spores. Their spores are usually found on the

underside of the leaves.

Figure 29.21 Fern

spore-producing structures
on the underside of the leaf

curled young leaves

root

Figure 29.22 Structure of a fern

b. Conifers
Test yourself
Conifers (also called gymnosperms) include some of the tallest
Most conifers living in snowy trees in the world. Most of them are evergreen and have needle-
climates have drooping branches
shaped leaves.
and needle-shaped leaves with
thick cuticle. What is the
significance of these adaptive They do not produce flowers. They reproduce by naked seeds,
features? which are enclosed in cones (Figure 29.24).
Answer
(Refer to p.A4 for answers.)
Examples include pines, firs, and cypresses.

Figure 29.23 Pine Figure 29.24 The cone has

woody scales.

fern gymnosperm cypress

29- 18 conifer pine
cone fir
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29 Biodiversity

c. Flowering plants
Remember this
The names ‘monocot’ and ‘dicot’
Flowering plants (also called angiosperms) are a diverse group
refer to the number of cotyledons of vascular seed plants that produce flowers.
in the seed. ‘Cotyledon’ literally
means ‘seed leaf’, which is the first Their seeds are enclosed in a fruit formed from the ovary of the
leaf-like structure emerging from
flower.
the seed upon germination.

Flowering plants can be classified into monocotyledonous plants

(monocots) and dicotyledonous plants (dicots).

Monocots Dicots

Number of cotyledons in One Two

seeds

cotyledons
cotyledon

Seed (L.S.) (x4)

Seed (L.S.) (x30)

Leaf venation Parallel venation Net venation

Number of petals in flowers Usually three or multiples of three Usually four or five or their multiples

Roots Fibrous roots Taproots

taproot
fibrous roots branch
root

Examples Grasses, sugar cane, orchids, lilies Hibiscus, roses, sunflowers, cacti

Table 29.1 Comparison of monocots and dicots

flowering plant angiosperm

monocotyledonous plant 29- 19
dicotyledonous plant
 29 Biodiversity

Worked example 29.1

The following shows the information about two plants. One of them is a vascular plant and the other one
is a non-vascular plant.

Plant A Plant B

• Lives in moist environment • Lives in dry environment

• Has leaf-like photosynthetic • Has fleshy leaves covered
structures lacking cuticle with thick cuticle
• Anchored by rhizoids • Anchored by roots
• Produces spores for • Reproduces by seeds
reproduction

(a) Using to the above information, deduce which plant is a non-vascular plant. (2 marks)
(b) Suggest how water is absorbed by plant A. (2 marks)
(c) What would happen if plant A is grown in plant B’s habitat? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

Solution
Reminder
(a) Plant A is a non-vascular plant. .................................(1)
‘Producing spore’ is not evidence
It has no true roots. ...................................................(1) strong enough to support plant A as a
non-vascular plant as some vascular
(b) Water is absorbed into the rhizoids and the leaf-like plants, such as ferns, also reproduce
structures of plant A...................................................(1) by spores.

through osmosis. .......................................................(1)

(c) Plant A would become desiccated. ............................(1)
Its leaf-like structures lack cuticle to prevent water
loss. ..........................................................................(1)

29- 20
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29 Biodiversity

Extras: Wonders of nature

Adapting to survive—carnivorous and parasitic plants
All forms of life must adapt to survive and reproduce.
Plants are no exception.
Carnivorous plants are found in habitats where the soil
is poor in nutrients, particularly nitrogen. To obtain
extra nitrogen, these plants capture small animals,
digest their proteins, and absorb the amino acids. Venus
flytraps and pitcher plants are two examples of
carnivorous plants.

 Venus flytrap  Pitcher plants

Parasitic plants draw on other plants to meet their needs, which may include water, minerals, or the products of
photosynthesis. For example, dodders have little chlorophyll, and therefore cannot make enough food by
photosynthesis. They produce specialized suckers that penetrate into the phloem of a host plant to extract nutrients.

dodder

suckers penetrating
into the phloem of
the host plant

host
plant
T.S. (x14)

 Dodder (yellow) wrapping around a host plant

Video F. Animalia
Hong Kong
animals (I)
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes that form the kingdom
e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccuv2902.e Animalia.

Video Unlike plant cells, animal cells have no cell wall.

Hong Kong
animals (II) They are heterotrophs and depend on other organisms for
e-aristo.hk/r/ nutrients.
bioccuv2903.e

Most animals are able to move from place to place.

They are adapted to live in a variety of habitats (both aquatic

and terrestrial).

Figure 29.25 on the next page shows a classification of animals.

There are two main groups—vertebrates and invertebrates.
Vertebrates have a backbone (or vertebral column) running the
length of the body, while invertebrates do not (Figure 29.26).

vertebrate
invertebrate 29- 21
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29 Biodiversity

Animals

without a with a
vertebral column vertebral column

Invertebrates
Vertebrates
(e.g. crab)

Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

(e.g. goldfish) (e.g. frog) (e.g. snake) (e.g. eagle) (e.g. human)

Figure 29.25 Classification of animals

a b c
backbone backbone

Figure 29.26 X-ray photos of a a crab, b a fish and c a frog

1. Invertebrates
Invertebrates are animals that do not have a vertebral column.
They are generally soft-bodied animals that lack a rigid internal
skeleton for the attachment of muscles.

Some invertebrates, such as jellyfish and earthworms, have a

hydroskeleton. This is an enclosed, liquid-filled cavity, which uses
liquid pressure to provide support. Many others have a hard or
tough outer shell, called an exoskeleton. This exoskeleton provides
a framework for support, protects soft body tissues, and prevents
water loss.

Apart from the absence of a vertebral column, invertebrates share

little in common. Indeed, they are very diverse, making up more
than 95% of all animal species. Some examples of invertebrates
and their characteristics are given on the next page.

hydroskeleton
29- 22 exoskeleton
 29 Biodiversity

Earthworm

Jellyfish
Sponge

tentacles
Earthworms have a tube-shaped
body that consists of segments.
Jellyfish have tentacles with Sponges have pores through They use bristles on their ventral
stinging cells for capturing prey. which water flows into the side to grip the soil as they
The body has only one opening body. They feed by filtering move.
that functions as both a mouth suspended food particles from
and an anus. the water.

Grasshopper
Snail

Squid

Like all insects, grasshoppers

Snails are soft-bodied animals have six jointed legs and have
with a hard, coiled shell. They wings. The body is divided into
Squid have a soft body with three main parts: a head, a
have a muscular foot for
internal shells. They have ten thorax, and an abdomen.
movement and attachment.
appendages. They move by
shooting a jet of water out of
their bodies. Sea urchin
Spider
tube feet
Lobster

Spiders are not insects. They Sea urchins have spines on the
have eight jointed legs and two skin for protection. Among the
body segments. They do not Lobsters have a hard spines are tube feet for gas
have antennae. exoskeleton. They live in water exchange, movement and
and have gills for gas exchange. grasping food.

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29 Biodiversity

2. Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals that have a vertebral column, which forms
part of their internal skeleton of bones or cartilage. The five main
groups of vertebrates are introduced below.

a. Fish
Fish are aquatic vertebrates. They inhabit both freshwater and
marine environments.

wet, slippery scales Fish have gills for gas exchange.

fin They have fins for swimming and balancing in water.

Most fish have a swim bladder. This is a sac-like organ that

contains gas. By changing the amount of gas in the bladder, a
fish can move up or down.
gill cover
lateral line
They have streamlined body that reduces resistance while
Figure 29.27 General body
swimming.
plan of fish

Most of them are covered with wet, slimy scales.

Along each side of a fish’s body is a lateral line. This is a sense

organ that detects changes in water pressure caused by
predators or prey in the surrounding water.

They are ectotherms. This means they mainly gain heat from
the environment. Therefore, their body temperature varies with
the temperature of their surroundings.

Most fish reproduce by external fertilization (i.e. eggs are

Test yourself
fertilized outside the body). Male and female fish release their
Species that reproduce through gametes into the surrounding water, where fertilization takes
external fertilization usually
release large numbers of gametes place.
at a time. What is the significance
of this? Examples of fish includes goldfish, eels, sharks and seahorses.
Answer
(Refer to p.A4 for answers.)

a b c

Eel Shark Seahorse

Figure 29.28 Examples of fish

fish scale external fertilization

29- 24 gill lateral line
fin ectotherm
 29 Biodiversity

b. Amphibians
Most amphibians begin life in water as larvae (or tadpoles)
(Figure 29.29) and then live on land as adults.

Tadpoles use gills for gas exchange. Adult amphibians use

gill
lungs and skin surface for gas exchange. They have moist
naked skin, without scale.
Figure 29.29 A tadpole is
limbless and has gills. Most adult amphibians have four limbs.

They are ectotherms.

Test yourself
They reproduce by external fertilization. The females release
In what ways are amphibians not eggs and the males release sperms into the water for fertilization.
adapted to terrestrial life?
Answer Fertilized eggs develop and hatch into tadpoles, which then
(Refer to p.A4 for answers.)
undergo metamorphosis to change into the adult form (Figure
29.31).

Examples of amphibians include frogs, toads and salamanders.

a b c

Frog Toad Salamander

Figure 29.30 Examples of amphibians

External fertilization

eggs embryo

tadpole

frog

tadpole with four legs tadpole with two legs

Figure 29.31 The life cycle of a frog

amphibian tadpole
metamorphosis 29- 25
 29 Biodiversity

c. Reptiles
Reptiles are fully adapted to life on land.
They have lungs for gas exchange.
They are covered with dry, hard scales, which offer protection
and prevent water loss.
Most reptiles have four limbs, except snakes.
They are ectotherms.
They carry out internal fertilization (i.e. eggs are fertilized inside
the female's body). After fertilization, most reptiles lay eggs
with a leathery or hard shell. The shell prevents the egg from
drying out on land and protects the embryo inside.
Examples of reptiles include lizards, snakes, crocodiles and
turtles.
a b c

Lizard Snake Turtle

Figure 29.32 Examples of reptiles

d. Birds
Remember this Birds are terrestrial but many of them are well-adapted for
Birds are the only living animals flight.
that have feathers. Feathers have
two main functions: flight and They have lungs for gas exchange.
insulation. Feathers keep heat
generated during metabolism They have feathers covering their bodies and have dry scales
from escaping from the body. on their legs.
Their fore limbs are modified into wings.
Birds have light-weight bones that contain cavities. They have
a beak with no teeth.
They are endotherms. They can generate body heat internally
by metabolism to maintain a relatively constant body
temperature.
They have internal fertilization and lay eggs with hard shells.
Examples of birds include eagles, hummingbirds, ostriches and
penguins.

reptile endotherm
29- 26 internal fertilization
bird
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29 Biodiversity

a b c

Figure 29.33 Birds range in size from a tiny hummingbirds to b large flightless ostriches. c Penguins cannot
fly and have a streamlined body adapted for swimming.

e. Mammals
Mammals inhabit a wide variety of habitats, both terrestrial and
aquatic.
They have lungs for breathing.
They have hair covering their bodies. The skin of many
mammals has sweat glands. Sweat glands produce sweat,
which helps cool the body.
They may have limbs that are specialized for a particular way of
moving (Figure 29.34).
They are endotherms.
They have internal fertilization. In most mammals, the embryo
develops in the female uterus and is nourished by the placenta.
They usually give birth to the live young, but do not lay egg.
Female mammals have mammary glands, which produce milk
after the birth of offspring. Milk contains the nutrients the young
Test yourself mammal needs, and antibodies to help the young fight off
Give two distinguishing features of diseases.
mammals.
Answer Examples of mammals include humans, rabbits, dogs, pigs,
(Refer to p.A4 for answers.)
bats, whales and dolphins.
a b c

Rabbits have strong hindlimbs which Bats are flying mammals. Their Whales are marine mammals. They
allow them to jump great distances. forelimbs are modified into wings, have no hindlimbs and their forelimbs
which consist of long digits covered are modified into flippers for
with a thin membrane. swimming.

Figure 29.34 Mammals have many different means of locomotion.

mammal
mammary gland 29- 27
 29 Biodiversity

Taking it further
Diversity of mammals
Mammals can be divided into three sub-groups based on their methods of reproduction.
Monotremes are egg-laying mammals. Today, they are represented by the platypus and the echidna.

 Platypus  Echidna

Marsupials are pouched mammals. After a brief pregnancy, a marsupial mother gives birth to a live tiny, immature
young that continues to grow and develop in a pouch on the outside of the mother’s body. Marsupials include the
kangaroo, koala, and opossum.

 Kangaroo  Koala  Opossum

Most mammals living today, including humans, are placental mammals. These are mammals with a placenta, the
organ that develops inside the female during pregnancy to sustain the developing young. They give birth to live,
well-developed young.

Key point
1. Domains Bacteria and Archaea contain prokaryotes. Domain Eukarya contains four kingdoms of eukaryotes.
2. Kingdom Eubacteria is the only kingdom in the domain Bacteria. It includes unicellular prokaryotes whose cell
walls contain peptidoglycan.
3. Kingdom Archaebacteria is the only kingdom in the domain Archaea. It includes unicellular prokaryotes
whose cell walls do not contain peptidoglycan. Most archaebacteria live in extreme environments.
4. Kingdom Protista includes eukaryotes that do not fit in any other kingdoms. They can be unicellular or
multicellular.
5. Kingdom Fungi includes eukaryotes whose cell walls contains chitin. They can be unicellular or multicellular.
Most fungi are saprophytes.
6. Kingdom Plantae includes all plants. They are multicellular eukaryotes whose cell walls contain cellulose.
Most plants are photosynthetic. Vascular plants have vascular tissues while non-vascular plants do not.
Vascular plants include ferns, conifers and flowering plants. Flowering plants can be divided into
monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous plants. Mosses are examples of non-vascular plants.
7. Kingdom Animalia includes all animals. They are multicellular eukaryotes and are heterotrophic. Their cells
have no cell walls. Vertebrates are animals that have a vertebral column. These include fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals. Invertebrates are animals that do not have a vertebral column, such as insects.

monotreme marsupial
29- 28 platypus placental mammal
echidna opossum
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29 Biodiversity

Checkpoint
1. Which of the following statements provides the best reason for
classifying unicellular organisms into domain Bacteria and Archaea?
A. Archaea are more ancient than bacteria.
B. Archaea are smaller than bacteria.
C. The DNA sequences of archaea are distinct from those of
bacteria.
D. The compositions of the cell wall and cell membrane of
archaea are different from those of bacteria.
HKDSEE Biology 2018 Paper 1 Section A Q9

2. What features of fungi distinguish them from plants?

(1) non-cellulose cell walls
(2) heterotrophic nutrition
(3) reproduction by spores
A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

Taking it further
How do we classify viruses?
Viruses are not made of cells. They lack protein coat
cell membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes or
other organelles. A virus is a nucleic acid
surrounded by a protein coat. Most
biologists do not consider viruses as alive
because they do not metabolize, respond
to stimuli, or reproduce on their own. To
multiply, viruses must infect a host cell
and depend on it to synthesize viral
proteins and nucleic acids. When they are
nucleic acid
outside of their hosts, viruses show none
of the characteristics of life.  Influenza virus (x350,000)

Viruses are not classified into any of the six kingdoms. Instead, virologists
classify them based on their structure, the type of nucleic acid they contain,
how they multiply, and the types of disease they cause. You will learn more
about viruses in the Elective Part, Chapter 38.

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29 Biodiversity

Learning objective 29.4 Dichotomous keys

Construct and use dichotomous
keys to identify unfamiliar
organisms A. Using dichotomous keys to identify
organisms
Remember this A dichotomous key is a tool used to identify organisms. The key
A dichotomous key only works if consists of a series of paired statements that describe alternative
the organism has been identified characteristics of organisms. Starting from the first pair of
by someone else. A newly
discovered organism needs to be statements, the person chooses which statement is true for the
studied first and then new organism to be identified. From there, the person is directed to
branches are added to the key. another pair of statements until the organism is identified by name.

Below is a dichotomous key for identifying five butterflies.

a b c

d e

Butterflies

Hindwings with tails Hindwings without tails

With moon-shaped With a large blue Wings with Wings without

red marks on the mark on each eyespots eyespots
hindwings hindwing

Orange wings with Orange wings without

black stripes black stripes

Chinese Peacock Paris Peacock Common Five-ring Common Tiger Plain Tiger
(Papilio bianor) (Papilio paris) (Ypthima baldus) (Danaus genutia) (Danaus chrysippus)
b e d a c

Figure 29.35 A dichotomous key for five butterflies

dichotomous key
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 29 Biodiversity

The key in Figure 29.35 is in the form of a tree diagram. A

dichotomous key can also be presented in a list of statements as
illustrated in the example below.

Worked example 29.2

The following diagrams show five different fish.

A B

C D

Use the dichotomous key below to identify the fish above. State the key sequence you went through
when making the identification. (5 marks)

1a Both eyes lie on one side of the head .................. Go to 2

1b One eye lies on each side of the head ................. Go to 3

2a Both eyes on the right side of the head ................ Hippoglossoides platessoides
2a Both eyes on the right side of the head ................ Paralichthys brasiliensis
3a Has one dorsal fin ............................................... Go to 4
3b Has two dorsal fins .............................................. Merluccius bilinearis

4a Has a forked tail fin ............................................. Pampus argenteus

4b Has a round tail fin .............................................. Schedophilus medusophagus

Solution
Reminder
A is Paralichthys brasiliensis 1a  2b .............................(1)
The first letter of the genus name should
B is Merluccius bilinearis 1b  3b....................................(1) be capitalized. Do not forget to underline
the genus name and the species name.
C is Hippoglossoides platessoides 1a  2a ......................(1)
D is Schedophilus medusophagus 1b  3a  4b ...........(1)
E is Pampus argenteus 1b  3a  4a .............................(1)

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29 Biodiversity

B. Constructing a dichotomous key

To construct a dichotomous key, follow the steps below:

1. Study the characteristics of the organisms to be identified. Look

for external characteristics that are easy to observe.

2. Choose one external characteristic that can be used to sort the

organisms into two groups. Write the pair of alternative
statements for the characteristic.

3. For each group, choose another characteristic to sort the

organisms into two smaller groups.

4. Repeat step 3 until all the organisms are sorted. Write the name
of each organism at the end of the statement where it is
identified.

Skill-building Presenting information

Activity 29.2 Constructing a dichotomous key for flowering plants

The photographs below show the flowers of six plants (A to F). Decide what characteristics you will use
to classify them. You may use petal size, number, colour and arrangement, or any other characteristics
that you observe. Construct a dichotomous key for the identification of these flowers.

A B C

D E F

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29 Biodiversity

Key point
A dichotomous key is tool for identifying organisms based on a series of
choices between alternative characteristics.

Checkpoint
The diagram shows an invertebrate.

Use the key to identify the invertebrate.

1a has wings..................................................... go to 2
1b has no wings............................................... go to 3
2a has three pairs of legs............................. A
2b has four or more pairs of legs.............. B
3a has one pair of antennae....................... C
3b has two pairs of antennae..................... D

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29 Biodiversity

Article reading

New firefly species named

after a Hongkonger
In 2017, a new species of firefly, Oculogryphus chenghoiyanae, was discovered in Hong Kong.
Live specimens of the species were collected in the field, and were examined and compared
with related species. Like all fireflies, Oculogryphus chenghoiyanae can glow from a pair of
light-emitting organs in the abdomen. Furthermore, they can fluoresce with a blue-green light
when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. The co-occurrence of light-emitting and fluorescence
abilities is rare in terrestrial animals, and this was reported in fireflies for the first time.

▲ A female O. chenghoiyanae ▲ A female O. chenghoiyanae fluorescing with a blue-

glowing brightly green light throughout the body under UV light

The species is named after a Hong Kong woman, Cheng Hoi Yan, who donated part of her liver
to save a stranger.

Questions

1. Define the term ‘species’. (2 marks)

2. When a new species is discovered, it needs to be classified. Suggest what criteria a biologist
may take into account when classifying a new species. (3 marks)

3. Suggest how the discovery of a new species can be validated by the scientific community.
(1 mark)

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 29 Biodiversity

e-dictionary
Key terms e-aristo.hk/r/
bioccedict.e

Animalia 動物界 p.7, 21 Eukarya 真核域 p.9

Archaea 古細菌域 p.9 Fungi 真菌界 p.8, 15

Archaebacteria 古細菌界 p.8, 13 invertebrate 無脊椎動物 p.21

Bacteria 細菌域 p.9 kingdom 界 p.4

binomial nomenclature 雙名法 p.6 monocotyledonous plant 單子葉植物 p.19

biodiversity 生物多樣性 p.3 phylogenetic relationship 系統發生的關係 p.8

classification 分類 p.4 Plantae 植物界 p.7, 16

dichotomous key 二叉式檢索表 p.30 Protista 原生生物界 p.7, 14

dicotyledonous plant 雙子葉植物 p.19 species 種 p.4

domain 域 p.9 vertebrate 脊椎動物 p.21

Eubacteria 真細菌界 p.8, 12

Summary

29.1 Diversity of life forms

1. Biodiversity refers to the wide variety of life forms on Earth.

2. The place where an organism lives is called its habitat. Organisms need to adapt to the specific conditions
in their habitats in order to survive.

29.2 Classifying organisms

3. Classification allows biologists to study organisms in a systematic way. It also helps in identification of
organisms.

4. Linnaeus classified organisms with similar characteristics in groups at different levels:

Kingdom  Phylum  Class  Order  Family  Genus  Species

decreasing numbers of organisms with increasing similarities

5. Species is the basic unit of classification. Members of the same species can interbreed to produce fertile
offspring.

6. Each species is given a scientific name which is unique and universal. The scientific name consists of two
words. The first word is the genus name. The second word is the species name.

7. The modern classification system reflects phylogenetic relationships among organisms. Organisms are
classified into three domains and six kingdoms.

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 29 Biodiversity

The six kingdoms

29.3

8. Characteristics of the six kingdoms:

Domain Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Kingdom Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Organization Unicellular Unicellular / multicellular Multicellular

Cell wall Made of Composition Present in Made of Made of Absent

peptidoglycan different from some groups; chitin cellulose
Eubacteria made of
cellulose

Chlorophyll Present in Absent Present in Absent Present Absent

some groups some groups

Mode of Autotrophic / Autotrophic / Autotrophic / Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic

nutrition heterotrophic heterotrophic heterotrophic

Habitat All habitats Extreme Aquatic Mostly Aquatic and Aquatic and
environments terrestrial terrestrial terrestrial

9. Characteristics of different plant groups:

Group Mosses Ferns Conifers Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous

plants plants

Vascular Absent Present Present Present Present

tissues

Roots No true roots, Present Present Present Present

but have (fibrous roots) (taproots)
rhizoids

Leaves Simple leaves Large, Needle-shaped Leaves with parallel Leaves with a network
feathery leaves veins of veins
leaves

Other • Reproduce by spores • Reproduce • Reproduce by • Reproduce by

characteristics by naked flowers flowers
seeds
• Flower parts in • Flower parts in
enclosed in
multiples of three multiples of four or
cones
five
• Seeds enclosed in
fruits • Seeds enclosed in
fruits
• One cotyledon
• Two cotyledons

10. Animals can be classified into vertebrates and invertebrates.

11. Vertebrates have a vertebral column (backbone) while invertebrates do not.

29- 36
 29 Biodiversity

12. Characteristics of different groups of vertebrates:

Group Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Habitat Aquatic Aquatic and Mostly terrestrial

terrestrial

Outer covering Wet, slimy Moist skin Dry, hard scales Feathers Hair
scales without scales

Organs for gas Gills Gills in larvae; Lungs

exchange lungs and skin
surface in
adults

Structures for Fins Four limbs Two wings and Four limbs
movement two legs

Control of Ectotherms Endotherms

body
temperature

Fertilization External fertilization Internal fertilization

Embryo Outside of the mother’s body; Outside of the mother’s body; Inside the
development in water in hard shells on land mother’s body

Other Lateral lines Beak without Mammary glands

characteristics (in most) teeth

Dichotomous keys
29.4

13. A dichotomous key is a tool for identifying organisms based on a series of choices between alternative
characteristics.

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29 Biodiversity

Concept map
Complete the following concept map to review the key points of this chapter.

helps the study of

Diversity of organisms Classification

can be classified into reflects

three domains phylogenetic

relationships
are

Archaea

consists of four kingdoms

consists of the consists of the
kingdom kingdom

Eubacteria Fungi Plantae Animalia

divided into

divided into

vascular non-vascular plants invertebrates

plants (e.g. mosses)
divided into
divided into

ferns flowering
plants fish amphibians reptiles birds

divided into

monocotyledonous
plants
plants

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29 Biodiversity

Time allowed: 40 minutes

Self quiz Total score: 30 marks

Level 1: Understanding basic concepts (12 marks, 1 mark for each multiple-choice question)

1. On what base did Linnaeus classify organisms? Which kingdom is Fungi?

A. binomial nomenclature A. I

B. structural similarities B. II

C. evolutionary relationship C. III

D. dichotomous key D. IV

2. A poodle and a Labrador retriever are both dogs 5. For each group of organisms listed in column 1,
and are given the scientific name Canis familiaris. select from column 2 one description that matches
What conclusion(s) can be drawn? it. Put the appropriate letter in the space provided.
(4 marks)
(1) They have the same phenotype.
Column 1 Column 2
(2) They have the same number of chromosomes.
(a) Mosses A. A group of the most
(3) They can interbreed to produce fertile primitive vascular plant
offspring. (b) Ferns B. Have hyphae
A. (3) only
(c) Conifers C. Have rhizoids
B. (1) and (2) only
(d) Dicots D. Produce seeds enclosed
C. (2) and (3) only in fruits
D. (1), (2) and (3) E. Produce seeds enclosed
in cones

3. The following statements are false. Replace the

6. Which of the following are common to owls and
underlined words with the correct words. (3 marks)
bats?
(a) Eubacteria are called extremophiles because
(1) Both of them breathe with lungs.
they live in extreme environments.
(2) Both of them can maintain a stable body
(b) Some eubacteria contain chloroplasts for
temperature.
photosynthesis.
(3) Both of them are birds.
(c) The cell wall of archaebacteria contains
peptidoglycan. A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
4. The key below can be used to classify kingdoms in C. (2) and (3) only
the domain Eukarya.
D. (1), (2) and (3)
Eukaryotes

7. Which of the following features is common to

with cell walls without cell walls dolphins, crocodiles and frogs?
kingdom I
A. They breathe with lungs.

cell walls made cell walls not made B. They lay eggs.
of cellulose of cellulose C. They have moist skin without scales.
kingdom II
D. They live both in water and on land.
unicellular or multicellular
multicellular kingdom III
kingdom IV

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 29 Biodiversity

Level 2: Applying concepts (16 marks)

8. The photos below show four birds which cannot fly.

P Q R S
Answer
(a) Use the key below to identify the birds. (4 marks)
1a With webbed feet.................................................................................... go to 2
1b Without webbed feet............................................................................... go to 3
2a With yellow feather near the eyes................................... Eudyptes chrysocome
2b Without yellow feather near the eyes........................................Pygoscelis papua
3a With crest on head.............................................................. Casuarius casuarius
3b Without crest on head...........................................................Gallirallus australis
Answer
(b) State one characteristic that only birds have. (1 mark)

9. The photograph below shows a stingray. Stingrays are a type of fish found in oceans near the seabed. They feed on
small organisms from the seabed.

(a) With reference to the photograph, state and explain

Answer
(i) one adapation that is advantageous for life under water. (2 marks)
Answer
(ii) one adapation that helps the stingray feed on the seabed. (2 marks)
(b) According to the modern classification system, stingrays and whales belong to the same phylum but different
sub-groups.
Answer
(i) State one structural similarity shared by all members in this phylum. (1 mark)
(ii) State two structural differences that could be used to classify stingrays and whales into different sub-
Answer
groups. (2 marks)

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 29 Biodiversity

10. The table below lists the scientific names of three flowering plants.

Plant Scientific name

X Camellia oleifera
Y Camellia hongkongensis
Z Tainia hongkongensis

Answer
(a) Name the domain to which the these plants belong. (1 mark)
Answer
(b) Suggest which two plants have a closer phylogenetic relationship. Explain your answer. (3 marks)

Level 3: Building a better answer (2 marks)

11. Read the following question and student A’s answer. Re-write and improve the answer based on the teacher’s
comments provided.

Question
The photograph below shows a plant.

20 mm

Answer
In what habitat does the plant live in? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

Student A’s answer

The plant lives in dry habitats. ✘
It has needle-shaped leaves to reduce water loss. ✘

Teacher's comment
Note the magnification of the photograph. The plant is a moss. It is a non-vascular plant with simple leaves and
stem, but has no true roots.

Answers are available on p. A4. If you miss any of the questions, review the section(s) again.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(a) 8(b) 9(a) 9(b) 10 11

Section(s) 29.2 29.2 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.4 29.3 29.1 29.3 29.2 29.3

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29 Biodiversity

Exam practice 5. The table below lists some features of three
organisms, P, Q and R.

Multiple-choice questions Endoplasmic

Cell wall Chlorophyll
reticulum
Section 29.2 P ✓ ✓ ✗
1. To confirm a newly found organism as a new Q ✗ ✓ ✓
species, biologists must show that the organism
R ✓ ✓ ✓
A. looks different from known species.
Key: ✓ = present; ✗ = absent
B. has behaviours different from known species.
These three organisms could be
C. has a similar DNA sequence to known species.
P Q R
D. does not produce fertile offspring with known
species. A. cyanobacteria fern yeast
B. cyanobacteria yeast fern
C. yeast cyanobacteria fern
2. If two organisms belong to the same order, they
also belong to the same D. fern yeast cyanobacteria

A. class. 6. Which of the following plants produces seeds but

B. family. no flowers?

C. genus. A. fern
D. species. B. grass
C. a pine tree
Section 29.3 D. an apple tree

3. Which of the organisms below belong to the

domain Eukarya? 7. Which of the following features is most essential for
mammals to live on land?
(1) Yeast
A. They have mammary glands.
(2) Amoeba
B. They have internal fertilization.
(3) Mouse
C. Their body is covered with hair.
A. (1) and (2) only
D. They have constant body temperature.
B. (1) and (3) only
HKCEE Biology 2011 Paper 2 Q29
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
8. The table below lists some features of four
HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q15
organisms. Which of them could be a reptile?

Key: ✓ = present; ✗ = absent

4. Which of the following combinations shows the
correct information about Eubacteria and Protista?
Fins Lungs Scales Hair
Eubacteria Protista
A. bigger in size smaller in size A. ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗

B. absence of cell wall presence of cell wall B. ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

C. presence of true absence of true C. ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗
nucleus nucleus
D. ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓
D. absence of presence of
mitochondria mitochondria

HKDSEE Biology 2013 Paper 1 Section A Q21

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 All answers
29 Biodiversity

Section 29.4
Directions: Questions 9 and 10 refer to the following Fish X Fish Y
photographs of two different fish: A. Bothus mancus Pseudupeneus maculatus
Fish X Fish Y B. Bothus mancus Holocentrus rufus
C. Aetobatus narinari Parapriacanthus guentheri
D. Aetobatus narinari Sphoeroides spengleri

HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q17

10. Which of the following allow further study of the

9. Using the dichotomous key below to identify the 29 phylogenetic relationship between the two fish?
fish: 30

(1) Compare the amino acid sequences of their

1a Both eyes on the top of the head......................2 functional proteins
1b One eye on each side of the head....................3
(2) Compare their internal body structure
2a Has long whip-like tail........... Aetobatus narinari
(3) Compare their living habitats and behaviours
2b Has short, blunt tail................... Bothus mancus
3a Has spots on its body surface..........................4 A. (1) and (2) only
3b Does not have spots on its body surface......... 5 B. (1) and (3) only
4a Has chin whiskers...... Pseudupeneus maculatus
C. (2) and (3) only
4b Does not has chin whiskers................................
........................................Sphoeroides spengleri D. (1), (2) and (3)
5a Has stripes on its body surface..........................
.............................................. Holocentrus rufus HKDSEE Biology 2014 Paper 1 Section A Q18

5b Does not have stripes on its body surface..........

...................................Parapriacanthus guentheri

Short questions
Section 29.2
11. (a) The arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) is a mammal classified in the order Carnivora. Complete the table below to show
the classification of the arctic fox. (2 marks)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class
Order Carnivora
Family Canidae
Genus Vulpes
Species

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 29 Biodiversity

(b) The artic fox lives in the Arctic where the land is covered in snow.

Answer
Explain how each of the following adaptations helps it survive in the cold climate of the Arctic. (3 marks)
• white hair
• thick hair
• small ears
(c) The arctic fox is also known as the white fox and polar fox in some countries. Explain why scientific names are
Answer
preferred over common names. (2 marks)

12. The chart below shows the timeline of some major advancements of technology and the development of different
classification systems:
Advancements of technology Development of different classification systems

1660
Hooke observed cork cells using a
Microscopy

simple microscope.
1735
Linnaeus proposed the two kingdom
1886 system: Vegetabilia and Animalia
The compound light microscope was
invented.
1937
Chatton proposed the two empire
system: Prokaryota and Eukaryota

1975 1977
Sanger developed the first DNA Woese and his team proposed six
DNA sequencing

sequencing method to determine the kingdom system: Eubacteria,

nucleotide sequence of DNA. Archaebacteria, X, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia

1987 1990
The first DNA sequencing machine was Woese and his team proposed three
invented. domain system: Bacteria, Archaea and
Eukarya

(a) Name kingdom X in the six kingdom system proposed by Woese and his team in 1977. (1 mark)
(b) How did the following technological advancements contribute to the development of different classification
systems? (4 marks)
• Microscopy
• DNA sequencing

HKDSEE Biology 2017 Paper 1 Section B Q6

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 29 Biodiversity

13. The photograph below shows Bauhinia Blakeana, commonly known as the Hong Kong Orchid Tree.

(a) With reference to two features observed in the photograph, state whether Bauhinia Blakeana is a monocot or a
Answer
dicot. (3 marks)
(b) Bauhinia Blakeana is the result of a cross between Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia purpurea. Suggest how
Answer
scientists can confirm Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia purpurea are separate species. (3 marks)

Section 29.4
14. The following key can be used for identifying organisms under the same phylum:

1a Absence of eyes ..............................................2

1b A pair of eyes ..................................................3
2a Six legs .................................................Class A
2b More than six legs ................................. Class B
3a Six legs ................................................. Class C
3b More than six legs .................................Class D

(a) Using the above key, identify which class organism X shown in the photograph below belongs to. (1 mark)

(b) Suggest a characteristic of the habitat of organism X. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
(c) A newly found organism Y has a pair of eyes and fewer than six legs. Although it is believed that this organism
belongs to this phylum, it cannot be identified by using the above key. Explain why this problem occurs.
(1 mark)
(d) Suggest one way to collect more information which can be used for deciding whether organism Y belongs to this
phylum. (2 marks)

HKDSEE Biology 2012 Paper 1 Section B Q4

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 29 Biodiversity

15. The following diagrams show the appearance of five flowering plants:

lesser celandine hyacinth wild daffodil

primrose dead nettle

(a) In the following table, put a ‘✓’ in the appropriate boxes to show the features of each flowering plant. (2 marks)

Leaves with Leaves with Cluster of

Single flower Other features
parallel veins network veins flowers
lesser celandine heart-shaped leaves

hyacinth funnel-like flowers

wild daffodil trumpet-like flowers

primrose club-shaped leaves

dead nettle two-lipped flowers

(b) Using the information from the table in (a), complete the following dichotomous key: (3 marks)
1a The plant has leaves with parallel veins........................................................................... 2

1b The plant has leaves with network veins.......................................................................... 3

2a ......................................... hyacinth

2b .................................... wild daffodil

3a The plant has two-lipped flowers.........................................................

3b The plant does not have two-lipped flowers........................................

4a .............................. lesser celandine

4b .......................................... primose

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 All answers
29 Biodiversity

(c) Study the following statement:

The dichotomous key shows that the lesser celandine and primrose have a closer evolutionary relationship.

Do you agree? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

HKDSEE Biology 2016 Paper 1 Section B Q4

Structured questions

Section 29.4
16. Six major groups of organisms are listed below:

animals bacteria plants

archaea fungi protists
(a) A teacher constructed a dichotomous key to help her students distinguish between each of these groups.
The key consists of a series of questions with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers.
(i) The first question is shown in the box below. Complete the key by choosing the correct answer from the
groups of organisms listed. (1 mark)

Question 1: Does the organism have walls made of chitin?

Yes = ..........................................
No go to question 2

(ii) Write a question in the box below to distinguish plants and protoctists from the remaining groups of
organisms. (1 mark)

Question 2: ....................................................................................................................................................
Yes = plants or protoctists
No go to question 3

(iii) Write a question in the box below to distinguish the archaea and bacteria from animals. (1 mark)

Question 3: ....................................................................................................................................................
Yes = animals
No archaea or bacteria

(b) (i) Figure 1 is diagram representing the taxonomic hierarchy of organisms within the animal kingdom.
Animals

Figure 1
Answer
State the level of taxonomic group represented by the letters Q, R, S and T. (2 marks)

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 29 Biodiversity

(ii) Figure 2 shows a diagram representing the phylogenies of some groups of organisms.

Bacteria

Archaea

Eukaryota

protoctists plants A fungi animals

Figure 2

The letter ‘A’ on Figure 2 represents a group of organisms called slime moulds.

With reference to Figure 2, discuss the classification of slime moulds and include the range of evidence on
which this classification might be based. (3 marks)Answer

(iii) State three reasons why the three-domain classification system is now used in preference to the five-
Answer
kingdom system. (3 marks)

OCR GCE AS Biology (Molecules, Biodiversity, Food and Health) Jun 2016 Q6

Essay

Section 29.2
17. Describe and explain the principles underlying modern classification of organisms. (10 marks)Answer

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