BIOTECHNOLOGY

This refers to the application of biological organisms or enzymes to the

synthesis, breakdown or transformation of materials in the service of people.
In other words it refers to the industrial and commercial application of
microorganism and genetic engineering. The most used biological organisms
include fungi especially yeast and bacteria. Biotechnology is used to produce
the new breeds of plants and animals with better production output, in
medicine and in industries.

WHY DO THE SCIENTISTS USE MICROORGANISMS IN

BIOTECHNOLOGY?

 There are a lot of microorganisms around us to use

 Microorganisms require fewer nutrients as compared to other
biological organisms as such they can be cultured easily
 Their genetic structure can be changed easily
 They have simple metabolic processes
 They have extreme rapid growth rate than any other organism
 They have no ethical value since they have no nervous system
 They are simple to work with because they are unicellular,
 They have useful enzymes

TECHNIQUES USED IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

There are two main techniques that biotechnology uses in making various
products. The first one is the fermentation and the other one is genetic
engineering.

Fermentation technology involves the growing of microorganisms on a large

scale in carefully controlled conditions. Then the microorganisms are used in
producing valuable products to us. These microorganisms are grown in the
vessel that is known as fermenters. Scientists will make sure that the
fermenters should have the suitable environment so that the microorganisms
can reproduce. Conditions such as temperature, oxygen, carbon dioxide
concentration and pH are checked.

The fermenters are of two types depending on the system or style of

management. Other fermenters are open so as to be feeding the
microorganisms constantly and then the product is extracted. This system is
known as a continuous system. The other system is known as the batch
system. In this system the fermenters are sealed from the beginning and
are never opened until the time for product extraction.

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PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING

Scientists use technology in the area of agriculture in order to increase the

quality of either crops or animals. They can do this to produce crops or
animals that grow faster or give high yield or can resist diseases attack but
also drought. This technique is what is called selective breeding. The
technique of selective breeding involves hybridization whereby a farmer may
cross one type of crop with another or a breed of animal with another with
the aim of producing a different variety or breed whose qualities are better
than those of the first crops or animals. In short selective breeding makes
farmers to realize (acquire) animals and crops of high qualities and this
increases economic benefit.
New maize variety in Malawi

Companies like Monsanto and Pannar are using biotechnology to produce

crops that suit various climates and soil type. Example of such crops include:
PAN 34343 which can grow well in dry conditions, DK 9089 that can
produce double cob per stem and double the production, Zm 309 also
known as Msunga banja and LM 523 among others.

Other methods that are used are inbreeding and out breeding.

INBREEDING: animals that have good qualities are allowed to mate among
themselves and in this way their traits are passed down to their offspring. In
this way the desired qualities are kept from one generation to another. Crops
are also inbred through the process of self-pollination among individual
plants of pure breeds.

OUTBREEDING: this is also known as hybridization. As discussed earlier on

this is the process where by a variety of crop is cross pollinated with the
other with the aim of improving the quality of a crop. In the same way
animals are also cross bred. The new product will have qualities such as the
ability to resist pests and diseases but also to give high yield. These days
many fruits and other crops are hybrid.

CATTLE BREEDS: technology is also used in the breeding of cattle. The

main aim of doing this is to produce hybrid cattle that can produce more
meat, more milk and can resist diseases. A good example of such breeds of
cattle includes Hereford and Aberdeen Angus which have more beef yield.
On the other hand Jersey and Friesian produce more milk. However these
breeds are expensive to rear.

Scientists have cross bred Zebu with exotic breeds such as Holstein and
Jersey to increase milk production. The new breeds produced can suit many
places in Malawi.

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Hybrid SHEEP are also reared mainly for their wool which is used in textile
manufacturing however they also provide meat as well as milk which is used
for cheese. They also kept for their fats and leather. Examples of sheep that
has high yield of wool include: Corriedale and merino.

PIGS are also bred because they provide meat (pork). They are easy and
cheap to rear because they can feed on food leftovers. Pigs can grow fast
and can provide high yield of pork. The Common breeds Of Pigs Include
Large White, Saddle Back and Hampshire

Hybrid POULTRY are also reared for both meat as well as eggs. Hybrid
poultry have better performance in terms of eggs as well as meat than the
pure breeds. Hybrids include Thornber, Ross and Hiline stock. The local
breeds that are kept in Malawi include Kaluta, Yakudia and Yoyoha. These
local breeds are cross bred by exotic breeds such as: hyalines, cob cross,
black australop.

Selective breeding has also increased with the discoveries in technology

such as genetic engineering and cloning. This can make the farmers to grow
a wide range of plants or crops without the use of seed. They use the tissue
cells that are cultured in the laboratories and these can produce the new
plants rapidly.

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

As mentioned earlier own biotechnology can be applied in the following

ways:

BLOOD TRANSFUSION

Before transferring blood the process of blood typing which uses genetic
knowledge is used so as to make sure that blood of the donor and recipient
is compatible.

GENETIC COUNSELING

Human genetic disorder specialists use the knowledge of genetics to advise

the parents who have disorder on the probability of passing the disorder to
their children. This helps them to decide on whether they should have kids or
not.

FORENSIC SCIENCE

This is used to determine the relationship between parents and children by

the studying the DNA. Close similarities between two DNA means close
relationship. This can help to settle disputes in families.

IN MEDICINE

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In pharmaceuticals microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi with
eukaryotic DNA are allowed in the laboratory to produce a certain protein
which is medically important.

a. A good example is production of synthetic insulin which is used by

diabetic patients is made from the bacteria Escherichia coli. Gene
therapy uses nucleic acid in drugs to treat diseases such as cancer and
mutation disorders. The drugs once introduced to the patient’s cells
cause the formation of new proteins.
b. Production of antibiotics: some microorganisms produce chemicals
that inhibit/ prevent the growth of other microorganisms. These are
called antibiotics. For example penicillin is produced through batch
fermentation process from the mould known as panicillium which
grows on the waste produces from soaking corn.
c. Production of vaccines: scientists use dead pathogen to produce
vaccine. To obtain more of these pathogens scientists can use tissue
culture of animal cell. Such vaccines include influenza virus vaccine
and polio vaccine.
d. Gene therapy: this involves replacement of a faulty gene with the
normal one. This makes the cell to start working properly by removing
the disease.

IN AGRICULTURE

In the past scientists used cross breeding and cross pollination only as a way
of getting hybrid crops or animals. This technology however has met various
challenges because only animals or crops of the same species could cross
bred. To overcome this problem the technology of gene transferring was
introduced. This technology has allowed plants and animals of different
species to cross breed.

a. Production of crops that resist diseases: A vector bacterium

which carries a recombinant gene (transgene) is injected in a plant so
as to make it disease resistant, drought resistant, herbicides resistant
but also to increase protein content.
b. Development of crops that produce natural insecticide against
a specific pest: such crops include tobacco against caterpillar.
c. Improving the shelf life of fruits and vegetables: this enables
them to stay longer and to be transported with low perishability.
d. Production of crops that produce high yield in a short period:
These plants with transgene are also called genetically modified (GM)
crops. Examples of GM crops include maize and cotton which have
been modified through Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria.

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 e. In animal farms some transgene s are introduced into the animals so
as to increase meat and milk quality and production. For example
bacteria have been used to produce a synthetic Bovine-somatrophin
hormone which makes the cows to produce more milk when injected to
them.
f. Plant and animal breeding using artificial selection: Scientists
use the knowledge of genetics to select the crops and animals with
desired characteristics

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Manufacturing industries rely much on enzymes and microorganism such as
bacteria and fungi to make useful products. For example when:
a. Beer brewing: brewing beer, baking bread certain bacteria are used
for faster fermentation. Yeasts have also been used as hosts to
synthesize enzymes.
b. Manufacturing detergents: enzymes with better cleaning power
have been used. Meat tenderizing uses enzymes (to tenderize means
making it easy to chew or cut). In sewage treatment plant enzymes
have been used to breakdown the organic matter.
c. Yoghurt production: the fermentation of milk sugar by two bacteria
produces yoghurt. Genetic engineering is used to produce the strain of
bacteria which are used in yoghurt manufacturing.

GENETIC ENGINEERING (GE)

Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes from one organism and
inserting them into the genetic material or DNA of another. It is done to
increase crop yields, improve quality of organisms to prevent genetic
disorders in offspring etc.
Scientists will extract a desired gene and insert it in the cell of another plant
or animal with the aim of improving the quality of that particular crop or
animal. The technology of transferring gene into unrelated species is called
transgenics and the organisms acquired in this way are called transgenic
organisms.

THE PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

The other name for genetic engineering is what is called recombinant DNA
technology.
What happens in the process of genetic engineering is that scientists will
introduce a foreign DNA from donor into a host organism such as bacteria to
stimulate it to synthesize a new protein. A section of DNA is extracted and
translocated into a bacteria or virus. Inside the cell of the bacteria there is a
structure called plasmid where the extracted DNA is inserted. When the DNA
has been accepted by the bacteria the bacteria will multiply thereby
multiplying the gene. The process of inserting DNA from an organism into

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another organism of different species is called cloning and production of
large quantities of identical genes by the means of genetic engineering is
called gene cloning.
In this process the desired gene is introduced to the cells and these cells are
then injected into a host which synthesizes them to make a protein which
are used in different ways. The preferred gene that is introduced to the cell
replaces the undesirable gene.

HOW IS INSULIN PRODUCED?

As mentioned earlier on genetic engineering is used in the production of
synthetic insulin which is very useful in treating diabetes mellitus. Scientists
use recombinant bacteria Escherichia coli. To make a recombinant DNA
scientist will extract mRNA (messenger RNA) from the pancreas of a human
being. RNA is abbreviation for ribonucleic Acid which is an important
chemical that is found in the living cell.

The DNA extracted from the pancreas is then introduced to a portion of

bacteria’s DNA. When these two DNAs combined they form a modified
bacteria DNA (recombinant DNA). The new/modified DNA is injected back to
the bacteria that work as the host. The hosts bacteria are cultured in a large
vessel called the fermenter which has nutrients for the growth of bacteria
and are allowed to multiply and synthesize human insulin.

When the bacteria have produced this hormone the hormone is then
separated from the bacteria. Artificial insulin is made in this way. It is this
insulin that is prepared into vials or tablets and sold commercially and used
to control blood sugar levels in human beings.
In brief we can say that the process of making insulin by the use of
microorganism is as follow;
1. Extracting genes for human insulin from humans and inserting them
into bacteria.
2. Cleaning the fermenter and adding nutrients
3. Putting the genetically modified bacteria into the fermenter
4. Allow the genetically modified bacteria to grow
5. Harvesting the bacteria and break open to release insulin
6. Purification and package of insulin

The recent discovery is the insertion of the gene of human insulin in tomato
plants to synthesize human insulin. When the tomato is eaten it provides
insulin to human beings which helps to control blood sugar.

OTHER APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering has been used in the area of agriculture in different
ways. For example: in daily animals like cattle and goats the transgenic
animals produce human milk and semen. These animals provide abundant
milk which people require for nutrients.

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In the same way the transgenic goats have been used to produce enzymes
that activate blood clotting. Sheep have been used also to secret human
clotting factors and rabbits have been used to produce hormone that is
used to treat bone disorder in animals. Microorganisms have been used in
the manufacturing the vaccine of diseases such as Hepatitis B but also foot
and mouth disease in animals.

Transgenic plants produce the genotypes that are pests resistant as well as
drought resistant. Transgenic bacteria are introduced to plants to make them
disease and pest resistant. Some transgenic tomatoes stay longer before
they ripe and this reduces the loss. They are also high in nutrients. Tobacco
plants are also altered to produce hemoglobin which is purified and used in
man. Transgenic rice has been used to produce rice which has high yield
and rich in vitamin A and Iron hence reducing deficiency diseases. Some
transgenic plants have been used to make chemicals that will degrade
plastics and hence reducing soil/ land pollution.

BENEFITS OF GENTIC ENGINEERING

 It helps in the production of proteins which are nutrients but are also
used to treat some diseases in plants as well as animals.
 It provides high quality hybrids of plants and animals which have
nutrients and vitamins and mineral salts.
 It is used to produce hybrids which resist diseases and pests.
 It helps to reduce pollution by producing chemicals that biodegrades
the plastics
 It has led to increase in agricultural production hence food security.

PROBLRMS ASSOCIATED WITH GENETIC ENGINEERING

a. People are afraid to eat GM organisms, crops and food as such market
is affected.
b. Transgenic genes in plants can escape and affected other species
hence interfering with the ecosystem.
c. Changing of genetic code can lead to mutation which may cause
diseases in the concerned organism.
d. The technique is tedious and expensive. The purification of bacteria is
not easy
e. The host microorganism can reject the inserted the DNA as a result the
DNA can be destroyed or made inactive.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE USE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Some people are always suspicious and uncomfortable with the
biotechnology because they pose a challenge to the community socially,
medically as well as ethically. People have questions that need to be
addressed. In this case we need to involve in the debate and discussions.
Some of the ethical issues that arise are:

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1) The affordability of the technology. Most of these genetically modified
things they are expensive so people will always question of their
affordability.
2) Some people are allergic to transgenic products
3) It can lead to loss of biodiversity
4) Some people can use biotechnology to make weapons
5) It can lead to production of harmful organisms as a result of a mistake
of genetic engineering.
6) People also argue that there is a need to protect human subject during
clinical trials. For example when trying the manufactured medicine
produced through biotechnology.
7) People will also argue on the extent to which genetically engineered
organisms will exchange generic material with other organisms and
possible harmful effects.
8) The extent to which these genetically engineered organisms can be
harmful to human being and the rest of the environment.
9) There is also a possibility that the genetically engineered organisms
can grow beyond the intended environment.