Science Yearly Notes 2024

oScientific Investigations

1.​ Types of Information or Data:

○​ Quantitative data: Numerical data (e.g., temperature, time, mass).
○​ Qualitative data: Descriptive data (e.g., colour, texture, smell).
○​ Quantitative data is usually more objective and easier to analyse statistically.
2.​ Valid and Reliable Procedure:
○​ Valid experiments accurately measure what they are intended to. They directly
address the hypothesis and eliminate biases.
○​ Reliable experiments are consistent across multiple trials. Consistency is
achieved by controlling all variables except the independent variable, repeating
trials, and using precise instruments.
3.​ Controlled Variables:
○​ These are factors that are kept constant to ensure that the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable is clearly observed. Examples
include keeping the temperature, time, and pressure consistent in chemical
reactions.
4.​ Dependent and Independent Variables:
○​ Independent variable: The variable that is deliberately changed (e.g., the
amount of light in a plant growth experiment).
○​ Dependent variable: The variable that is measured in response to changes in
the independent variable (e.g., the height of the plants).
5.​ Lab Safety and Risk Assessments:
○​ Wear safety equipment like goggles, gloves, and lab coats.
○​ Assess potential risks (e.g., chemical burns, inhalation of fumes) and take
precautions to minimise them.
○​ Ensure proper handling of hazardous materials and have emergency equipment
ready (e.g., fire extinguishers, eye wash stations).
6.​ Writing Hypotheses:
○​ A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting the relationship between
variables.
○​ It is written as an "If...then..." statement (e.g., "If the temperature increases, then
the rate of reaction will increase").
7.​ Recording Data:
○​ Data should be recorded systematically, often using tables, graphs, or diagrams.
○​ Organising data helps identify trends and allows easy comparison of results.
8.​ Identifying Trends and Patterns:
○​ Look for trends (e.g., as one variable increases, the other also increases or
decreases).
 ○​ Recognize patterns and any anomalies or outliers that don’t fit the expected
result.

Chemical Reactions

1.​ Atoms and Matter:

○​ All matter is composed of atoms. Each atom has mass and occupies space.
○​ Elements are substances made up of one type of atom, while compounds
consist of two or more types of atoms bonded together.
2.​ Types of Chemical Reactions:
○​ Combustion: A reaction with oxygen, producing heat and light (e.g., burning
wood).
○​ Acid and Metal: Acids react with metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas (e.g.,
HCl + Mg → MgCl₂ + H₂).
○​ Acid and Carbonate: Acids react with carbonates to produce a salt, water, and
carbon dioxide (e.g., HCl + CaCO₃ → CaCl₂ + CO₂ + H₂O).
○​ Corrosion: Slow oxidation of metals (e.g., rusting of iron).
○​ Precipitation: Two soluble salts react to form an insoluble solid.
○​ Neutralisation: Acid reacts with a base to produce salt and water (e.g., HCl +
NaOH → NaCl + H₂O).
○​ Decomposition: A compound breaks down into simpler substances (e.g., 2H₂O
→ 2H₂ + O₂).
3.​ Chemical Word Equations:
○​ Write the names of the reactants on the left side and the products on the right
side of the equation.
○​ Example: Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium chloride +
Hydrogen gas.
4.​ Conservation of Mass:
○​ In any chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged but not created or destroyed
(Law of Conservation of Mass).
5.​ Increasing Reaction Rates:
○​ Catalysts: Lower the activation energy, speeding up reactions without being
consumed.
○​ Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy of particles, leading to
more frequent and energetic collisions.
○​ Concentration: Higher concentrations of reactants lead to more frequent
collisions.
○​ Surface area: Increasing the surface area (e.g., powdering a solid) allows more
collisions to occur.
6.​ Energy in Reactions:
○​ Exothermic reactions: Release energy (e.g., combustion).
○​ Endothermic reactions: Absorb energy (e.g., photosynthesis).
Motion and Waves

1.​ Energy Transfers:

○​ Conduction: Heat transfer through direct contact (e.g., metal rod heating).
○​ Convection: Heat transfer through fluid motion (e.g., boiling water).
○​ Radiation: Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves (e.g., sunlight).
2.​ Speed, Distance, and Time Calculations:
○​ Speed (m/s) = Distance (m) ÷ Time (s).
○​ Example: If a car travels 150 m in 10 seconds, its speed is 15 m/s.
3.​ Force, Mass, and Acceleration:
○​ Newton's Second Law: Force (N) = Mass (kg) × Acceleration (m/s²).
○​ Example: A 10 kg object accelerating at 2 m/s² experiences a force of 20 N.
4.​ Interpreting Graphs:
○​ Distance-time graphs: Slope represents speed. A steeper slope means faster
motion.
○​ Speed-time graphs: Slope represents acceleration. A flat line shows constant
speed, while a slope shows changing speed.
5.​ Newton’s Laws:
○​ First Law: An object remains at rest or moves at a constant velocity unless acted
on by an external force (inertia).
○​ Second Law: Force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration.
○​ Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
6.​ Waves:
○​ Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive points in a wave (e.g., crest
to crest).
○​ Frequency: The number of waves that pass a point in one second (measured in
Hz).
○​ Speed of a wave: Speed = Wavelength × Frequency.
7.​ Sound Transmission:
○​ Sound travels through particles vibrating. It moves faster in solids than in liquids
and gases because particles are more closely packed.
8.​ Electromagnetic Spectrum:
○​ Waves arranged from longest to shortest wavelength: Radio waves,
Microwaves, Infrared, Visible light, Ultraviolet, X-rays, Gamma rays.
○​ Each part of the spectrum has different uses, like radio waves for communication
and X-rays for medical imaging.

Genetics and Evolution

1.​ Darwin’s Theory of Evolution:

 ○​ Species evolve over time due to natural selection, where individuals with traits
better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.
2.​ Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection:
○​ Natural selection: Traits evolve naturally due to environmental pressures (e.g.,
giraffes developing longer necks).
○​ Artificial selection: Humans select traits to breed (e.g., breeding dogs for
specific characteristics).
3.​ Examples of Natural Selection:
○​ Peppered moths: Moths with darker colouring became more common during the
Industrial Revolution due to pollution darkening trees.
○​ Antibiotic-resistant bacteria: Bacteria that survive antibiotics can pass on their
resistant genes.
4.​ Structure of DNA:
○​ DNA is a double helix made up of nucleotides (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and
Guanine).
○​ It carries genetic information for the development and function of living
organisms.
5.​ Genes and Phenotypes:
○​ Genes are units of heredity that determine characteristics (e.g., hair colour).
○​ Phenotype is the observable expression of the genes (e.g., brown hair).
6.​ Dominant and Recessive Traits:
○​ Dominant allele: Expressed if present (e.g., brown eyes).
○​ Recessive allele: Expressed only when two copies are present (e.g., blue eyes).
7.​ Punnett Squares:
○​ A tool used to predict the outcome of genetic crosses, showing the probability of
offspring inheriting specific traits.
8.​ Mitosis and Meiosis:
○​ Mitosis: Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells (used for growth
and repair).
○​ Meiosis: Cell division resulting in four genetically different cells with half the
number of chromosomes (used for reproduction).
9.​ Biotechnology:
○​ Examples include IVF (in vitro fertilisation), genetic modification (GM crops),
and stem cells used for medical treatments.
○​ These technologies raise ethical and societal questions but offer significant
advances in medicine and agriculture.