Energy and Matter in

Chemical Change
 What is Chemistry?
The study of matter; its
properties, composition
and the changes it
undergoes.
 Why Chemistry is Cool

It has the best jokes…

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A Walk Down
 WHMIS

Compressed Gas Poisonous

Toxic

Biohazardous Oxidizing
Flammable Corrosive Radioactive
 HHPS

Danger Warning Caution

H azardous
H ousehold
P roduct
S ymbols
 MSDS

M aterial
S afety
D ata
S heets
Science Lingo…
• Scientists use an experiment to search for cause
and effect relationships in nature. In other
words, they design an experiment so that
changes to one item cause something else to
vary in a predictable way.

• These changing quantities are called variables.

A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that
can exist in differing amounts or types. An
experiment usually has three kinds of variables:
independent, dependent, and controlled.
• The independent (manipulated) variable is the one
that is changed by the scientist. To insure a fair test,
a good experiment has only one independent
variable. As the scientist changes the independent
variable, he or she observes what happens.
• The scientist focuses his or her observations on the
dependent (responding) variable to see how it
responds to the change made to the independent
variable.
 Let’s Look At An Example…
• For example, if you open a faucet (the
independent variable), the quantity of water
flowing (dependent variable) changes in
response--you observe that the water flow
increases. The number of dependent variables
in an experiment varies, but there is often
more than one.
• Controlled variables are quantities remain constant.

For example, if we want to measure how much water

flow increases when we open a faucet, it is important to
make sure that the water pressure (the controlled
variable) is held constant. That's because both the water
pressure and the opening of a faucet have an impact on
how much water flows. If we change both of them at the
same time, we can't be sure how much of the change in
water flow is because of the faucet opening and how
much because of the water pressure. In other words, it
would not be a fair test. Most experiments have more
than one controlled variable. Some people refer to
controlled variables as "constant variables."
 An Example…
• A scientist is conducting an experiment to test if
taking vitamin A could extend a person’s life-
expectancy.
 Another Example…
• A scientist wants to see if temperature affects
the reaction rate of melting M&M’s. She sets
up three beakers with different temperatures
of water; hot, luke warm and ice cold.
 Summary
• Independent (Manipulated) Variable: What
we are changing

• Dependent (Responding) Variable: The

Response (what happens)

• Controlled Variable: What remains the same

• A hypothesis is an educated guess about how
o n g
things work.
W r
B e
• Your hypothesis should
t To !
be something
e
that you
i
can actually test,
r g h n c
what's called
e a testable
hypothesis.A l S ci
I t I s I n
• In other words, you need to be able to measure
both "what you do" and "what will happen."
 Scientific Method
• What is the scientific method?
– It is a process that is used to find answers to questions about
the world around us

• Is there only one “scientific method”?

– No there are several versions of the scientific method. Some
versions have more steps, while others may have only a few.
However, they all begin with the identification of a problem
or a question to be answered based on observations of the
world around us and provide an organized method for
conducting and analyzing an experiment.
 Hypothesis
• What is a hypothesis?
– It is an educated guess based on observations and
your knowledge of the topic.
 Data
• What is data?
– It is information gathered during an
experiment
 Identify

Form a Hypothesis

Create an Experiment

Perform an Experiment

Analyze Data
Is data accurate? Modify the Experiment

Communicate the Results

Scientists
 Aristotle
• 400 BC
• Fire, Earth, Water and Air
 Democritus
• Believed that material was made up of small
individual particles called “atoms”
Alchemists
 Lavoisier
• “Father of Modern Chemistry”
• Came up with the Law of Conservation of
Mass- “Mass is neither created nor destroyed”

The other person who did a lot of significant scientific work but did not
get credit because of her gender
 Dalton
• In 1804 Dalton stated that atoms were
– Tiny individual particles
– All identical in a given element with identical
properties
– Two or more elements atoms will combine in fixed
ratios
– “Billiard Ball Model”
 Dalton’s Matter Model
• All matter is made of atoms

• All atoms of an element are identical in

properties

• Atoms of different elements can combine in

specific ratios to form new substances
 Law of Definite Proportions
• A compound always has the same ratio of
atoms, regardless of how it is made.

Example: water is always H2O, not HO, or HO2, or H2O2

30
 J.J. Thompson
• Discovered that atoms had negative particles
(electron) contained inside the atom
• “Raisin Bun Model”
 Nagoaka
• Placed all the + charges in the centre of the
atom and all the – charges in a ring around the
centre.
• “Saturn Ring” model
 Rutherford
• Believed that electrons were outside the
dense positive part of the atom (nucleus)
• Used gold foil experiment
 Chadwick
• Discovered the subatomic particles:
– Protons: p+
– Electrons: e-
– Neutrons: n°
 Bohr
• Thought that electrons were arranged in
certain energy levels around a positive nucleus
• Electrons in orbitals
• “Bohr Model”
 de Broglie and Schrodinger
• Electron cloud model
• Electrons are not considered to be point
charges but as a mist around the nucleus
• Theory has evolved into the quantum
mechanics model

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7SjFJImg2Z8
 The Latest and Greatest- Quantum
Mechanics
• The latest experimental evidence has disproved
Bohr’s idea of fixed energy levels
• Now, they visualize electrons not as a particle,
but as a cloud of negative charge. Rather than
following little race tracks around the nucleus,
they occupy the whole space all at once at
different energy levels
• NOW GET YOUR HEAD AROUND THAT!
 Modern Atomic Structure
• Current models are more complex and
involve many subatomic particles such as
quarks (protons and neutrons)

38
 Your Task
• Check & Reflect p 25 # 1,5-8 & 11
• Section Review page 27 # 5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16
• Expect a scientist quiz next class
 Matter
• Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up
space.
 States of Matter
• There are four states of
matter:
– Solid
– Liquid
– Gas
– Plasma
 Particle Model of Matter
5 Main Points:

1) All substances are made of matter

2) All particles in a pure substance are the same. Different

pure substances are made of different particles.

3) Particles are always in motion. The speed of the particles

increases when temperature increases.

4) Particles have space between them

Organizing Matter
 Pure Substances
• Made up of only one kind of matter and has
a unique set of properties.
• Can only be broken down by a chemical
decomposition

Elements
Compounds
 Elements
• pure substance that cannot be separated into
simpler substance by physical or chemical means.
• Basic building blocks for all compounds
• Each element has it’s own symbol
 Compounds

Pure substance composed of two or more different

elements joined by chemical bonds.

– Made of elements in a specific ratio

H 2
O
that is always the same
– Has a chemical formula NaCl
– Can only be separated by
chemical means, not physically

CO 2
 Mixtures

• A combination of two or more pure substances that

are not chemically combined.
• substances held together by physical forces, not
chemical
• No chemical change takes place
• Each item retains its properties
in the mixture
• They can be separated physically

Chem4kids.com
 Heterogeneous Mixtures
• Heterogeneous mixtures are also known as
Mechanical Mixtures
• In a mechanical mixture, the different
substances that make up the mixture are
visible.
• Includes: Mechanical mixtures, suspensions,
emulsions and colloids
 Homogeneous Mixtures
• A Homogeneous Mixture is also known as a
Solution
• In a solution, the different substances that
make it up are not separately visible.
• One substance is dissolved in another.
• Recall that a Solution is made up of a Solvent
and a Solute
 Suspensions
• A suspension is a cloudy mixture where tiny
particles of one substance are held within
another.
• These particles can be separated out when the
mixture is poured through filter paper.
 Colloids
• A colloid is also a cloudy mixture, but the
particles of the suspended substance are to
small that they cannot be easily separated out
from the substance.
 Test Your Understanding
• A black solid with a constant melting point is
heated to a high temperature, producing a gas
and a shiny brown metal. The boiling point of
the gas is -183°C and the melting point of the
metal is 1085°C. Is the black solid an element,
compound or mixture? Explain
• Let’s break down the evidence:
– Constant melting point (not a mixture)
– But both a gas and a solid were formed. So it is
not an element

 Compound
 Separation of Mixtures
• Separating Mixtures to identify the ingredients
can be accomplished through the following
procedures.
– Mechanical Mixtures: sifting or filtering
– Solutions: distillation
– Suspensions: filtration and centrifuging
– Colloidal Solutions: centrifuging
– Compounds: chromatography
Phase Changes
 Physical vs. Chemical Change

Physical Chemical

http://cwx.prenhall.com/petrucci/chapter1/medialib/tutor/f20/0103.html
 Chemical Change
• A chemical change always results in the
formation of a different substance or
substances.
 Physical Properties
2 Categories of Physical Properties:
1) Qualitative Properties ( sensed/ observed)
• Color
• Texture
• Smell
• Taste
• Malleability
• Texture
• Change in state
• Ductility
 Physical Properties
2) Quantitative Properties (measured)

• Melting point (mp)

• Boiling Point (bp)
• Density  d= m/v (mass/volume)
• Solubility
• Viscosity (flow rate)
• Conductivity
 Chemical Reactions
• Characteristics
– Energy change (temperature, light, sound, electricity)
– Odor Change (appearance or disappearance)
– Color change
– Formation of a gas
– Formation of a solid (precipitate)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66kuhJkQCVM
 Test Your Understanding
• A blue crystal is placed in water and after
stirring it disappears and the water becomes
blue. The liquid is then heated and the water
evaporates and small blue crystals appear. Did
a chemical reaction take place?

=
 Answer
• NO. The crystal dissolved and then the water
evaporated. This was only a phase change not a
chemical change. No new substance was
created.

And Now You Know!

 Test Your Understanding
• If a marshmallow is cooked over a flame and
becomes black on the outside, did a chemical
reaction occur? Defend your answer

=
 Answer
• YES! A new color appears (black crust) and a
new substance was produced (carbon crust)
Change Physical Chemical Evidence

Frying and Egg

Boiling Water

Leaves changing in the

Fall

Rusting Iron
And One More Time…
1) Color change

2) Gas is formed

3) New odor is formed

4) Precipitate (solid) is formed

5) Temperature rise or drop

 Your Task
• Create a set of notes summarizing the
differences between chemical and physical
changes/reactions
• Check & Reflect p 25 # 1,5-8 & 11
• Section Review page 27 # 5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16
 The Periodic Table

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxJe7e5thkI&feature=relmfu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0YmypUfvJvY
 Elements
• The number of protons in the nucleus and the
distribution of electrons around it determines the
type of element and the chemical and physical
properties of the element.
Eg. hydrogen is 1 p surrounded by 1e- bromine is 35 p and 45 n
surrounded by 35 e-

72
 Elements
• Elements consist of three main classes
– 1) metals
– 2) non-metals
– 3) metalloids
• These classifications are based primarily on
conductivity

73
 Elements
• Most elements occur naturally as single atoms
(monoatomic) eg. Ne

• Other elements occur naturally as

combinations of two or more atoms (molecular
elements)
– diatomics eg. O2, N2, H2, Cl2,
– polyatomics eg. P4, S8

74
 Relationship of Chemical Symbols to
Chemical Names
• Alchemists used artistic symbols to
represent the elements
• Dalton updated the symbols but they were
still cumbersome

75
 Relationship of Chemical Symbols to
Chemical Names

• Baron Jons Jakob Berzelius (1779 -1844)

developed the letter system in
1814 which was basically the same
as the modern system except it
used superscripts instead of
subscripts.

76
 International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry -IUPAC

• Founded in 1919 IUPAC maintains an

international system for naming chemicals

77
 International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry -IUPAC
• IUPAC develops rules, guidelines and
standard conventions for the study of all
aspects of Chemistry
• IUPAC allows chemists to communicate
clearly and precisely

78
 Modern Atomic Symbols
• The same in every language.
• First letter upper case, second letter (if any)
lower case (eg Co not CO)

NOTE: Figure A2.3 p 30

Memorize element names and symbols of rows1- 4
[The elements most prevalent in living things are H, C, N,
O, S, & Ca.]
Worth of the Human Body link1
Worth of the Human Body link2

79
 Periodic Table
• John Newlands (1837-1898)
• English scientist organized the 62
known elements on basis of
atomic mass four years before
Mendeleev (1864).
H1 F8 Cl 15 Co/Ni 22 Br 29 Pd 36 I 42 Pt/Ir 50

Li 2 Na 9 K 16 Cu 23 Rb 30 Ag 37 Cs 44 Tl 53

Gl 3 Mg 10 Ca 17 Zn 25 Sr 31 Cd 34 Ba/V 45 Pb 54

Bo 4 Al 11 Cr 18 Y 24 Ce/La 33 U 40 Ta 46 Th 56

C5 Si 12 Ti 19 In 26 Zr 32 Sn 39 W 47 Hg 52

N6 P 13 Mn 20 As 27 Di/Mo 34 Sb 41 Nb 48 Bi 55

O7 S 14 Fe 21 Se 28 Ro/Ru 35 Te 43 Au 49 Os 51

80
 Periodic Table - reference p 31

• Dimitri Mendeleev (1869) &

Lothar Meyer (1870)
individually arranged know
elements in periodic
repetition of characteristics
• The success of this model was
that it was predictive

81
The Periodic Table, Your Tool in Chemistry
• The elements on the periodic table are
organized according to their atomic number
• There are about 115 elements known
– Only 90 are naturally occurring
– All elements are divided into one of three
categories
Metalloids
 Trends
• The periodic table is arranged according to
three
• Main things:
a) Increasing atomic mass
b) Grouped in families because they have
similar chemical properties
c) Reactivity increases from L to R and
from Top to Bottom
• Each horizontal row is called a period
– Grouped together because of energy levels
– Numbered 1-7

• Each vertical column is a group or family

– All members of a family have similar chemical properties
– Numbered 1-18
 Group (Medeleev used the term families)
• Vertical columns, elements with similar chemical
and physical properties
(Alkali metals, alkali earths, halogens, & noble gases)

- Group 1 & 2 are classified with increasing

reactivity from top to bottom

- Group 17 decreases in reactivity from top to

bottom (fluorine is one of the most reactive substances known)
(Note: Noble gases generally unreactive)

86
 Period
• Horizontal rows with elements arranged so
that their properties repeat periodically
across the table
• Each new row represents repeating trends
in reactivity

87
 Groups or Families
• Notable groups:
- Alkali metals
- Alkaline-earth metals
- Noble gases
- Halogens
 Alkali Metals

• Soft, shiny, silver in colour

• Very reactive with water
• Compounds tend to be white solids that are
soluble in water
• They have 1 valence electron (e-)

* Note that Hydrogen does not belong to the

alkali family
 Alkaline Earth Metals
• Shiny, silver, but not as soft as alkali
• Compounds white, but less soluble than alkali
• Tend to react with oxygen
• 2 valence e-
 Halogens
• Non-metals
• Poisonous and react with alkali metals to form
salts
• Cl and F (g) Br (l), I (s)
• 7 Valence e-
 Nobel Gases
• Colorless gases
• Very unreactive
 Other Groups
Group 3-12: Transition Metals
• They tend to be shiny, malleable and conduct
thermal energy and electric current well
 Staircase line

• Separates metals & non-metals

94
•
 Metalloids
• Solids at room temperature
• Have properties of metals and non-metals
• Eight metalloids are: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po
At border the staircase line of the periodic
table
• Important in semi-conductor industry

95
 Lanthanides
Lanthanides Elements in the first row that
follow lanthanum are called lanthanides. These
are also called rare-earth and inner-transition
metals. These can be found naturally (though
rarely, considering the name!) on earth.
 Actinides
• Elements in the second row that follow
actinium are called actinides.
• These are all radioactive and some are not
found in nature. Some of the elements with
higher atomic numbers have only been made
in labs
 Some Things to be Aware of…
• Group 1 elements always donate 1 electron
• Group2 elements always donate 2 electrons

• Group 17 elements accept 1 electron

• Group 16 elements accept 2 electrons
 Types of Elements
Metals:
– Solid at room temperature (except mercury)
– Most are lustrous, malleable and ductile
– Most will react with non-metals
– They are good conductors of electricity
– Exist to the left of the “staircase”
 Characteristics of Metals
• 1. Conduction: Metals are good at conducting electricity. Silver (Ag)
and copper (Cu) are some of the most efficient metals and are often
used in electronics.

2. Reactivity: Metals are very reactive, some more than others, but
most form compounds with other elements quite easily. Sodium (Na)
and potassium (K) are some of the most reactive metals.

3. Chemical: Metals usually make positive ions when the compounds

are dissolved in solution. Also, their metallic oxides make hydroxides
(bases) (OH-), and not acids,
when in solution.

4. Alloys: Metals are easily combined.

Mixtures of many metallic elements are called
alloys. Examples of alloys are steel and bronze.
 Alloys
• solid solutions which
usually have a metal as the
solvent and a metal or a
non-metal as the solute.
Eg. Steel (Fe, C),
solder (Sn, Pb/Ag),
bronze (Cu, Sn),
amalgam (Hg, Ag, Sn)

101
 Types of Elements
Non-metals:
- Find them right of the “staircase”
- Can exist as solid, liquid, or gas at room
temp
-Appearance varies, not very shiny
-Poor conductors of electricity
- Brittle/not ductile
Element Song - YouTube
 Your Task
• Periodic table worksheet
• Read page 28-39 make sure to add notes for understanding on the
following:
– SATP
– Metals as elements
– Non-metals as elements, molecules that are elements
– Metalloids as elements
– The Modern Periodic Table and
• Families or groups
• Periods
• The staircase
• The table key
• Alkali metals
• Alkaline earth metals
• Halogens
• Noble gases
• salts
 Atomic Theory

Atom Song – YouTube

 Atoms
• An atom is made up of three types of
subatomic particles:
– Protons  p+
– Electrons  e –
– Neutrons  n°

These subatomic particles were

discovered by…
 Atoms
• The protons and neutrons are contained in the
nucleus, while the electrons are outside the
nucleus

• Neutral element (no charge)

– Electrons and protons are the
Organization
 Atomic Number
• Elements are defined by the number of
protons contained in the nucleus
• The number of protons found in the nucleus
of an atom is its atomic number
Example: Hydrogen (H) ‑ 1 p - 1H
Gold (Au) ‑ 79 p - 79 Au

109
 Isotopes
• Isotopes: differing numbers of neutrons in an
atom but the same number of protons
– Results in a different atomic mass

Note:
• All three isotopes of hydrogen contain 1 proton in the nucleus
• All three isotopes of hydrogen have 1 electron outside the nucleus
• The three isotopes of hydrogen differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BYX312koKps
 Isotopes

PROTON AND ELECTRONS STAY THE

SAME

BUT

THE NEUTRON # IS DIFFERENT

112
113
 Example
• Let’s consider the naturally occurring isotopes of
chlorine:

• 75.53% of all atoms are 3517 Cl isotopes; the atomic

number is 17 and the atomic mass is 35

• 24.47% of all atoms are 3717Cl isotopes; the atomic

number is 17 and the atomic mass is 37

• Note the atomic mass changes because the

number of neutrons increases the mass
 Example:
• An isotope with 45 proton and 48 neutrons
would be what?
 Symbol
• Ms. Godley remember to talk about how to
symbolize isotopes
 Naming Isotopes
• “atom name” – “mass number”

Example:

Oxygen-18 Silver-200 Copper-150

# of e = # of e = # of e =
# of p = # of p = # of p =
# of n = # of n = # of n =
Symbol = Symbol = Symbol
 Isotopes
• The average mass of each atom is what is
recorded for each element in the Periodic
Table.
• All elements in the Periodic Table have
isotopes that results in atomic numbers that
are not
whole numbers
 Energy Levels - aka Energy Shells
• Electrons in atoms can only be at certain
energy levels. [cf. stairs]
• Transitions between energy levels involves
either a gain ("up") or loss ("down") of energy.
• Energy levels closest to the nucleus are always
filled up first

120
 Energy Levels
The maximum number of electrons in each level is:
Level # of electrons
1 2 This level is filled 1st

2 8 Bohr
3 8 Diagrams

4 18
*Lower levels must be filled before higher levels get any
electrons.

121
Let’s Reintroduce Ourselves to Bohr
Diagrams
 Drawing E Level Diagrams
• Draw E level diagrams for various atoms on
board and state how many valence electrons
they have

123
 Energy Levels & Chemical Properties
• Why would sodium with 11 electrons have
similar chemical properties as potassium with
19 electrons?
• Draw E level diagrams for each!

124
 A Little Chemistry Humor…
• Why does hamburger have lower energy than
steak?
Because it's in the ground state.

Ch
em
soo istry i
fun oo s
ny!
!!!
 Valence e- & Octet Rule
• The electrons occupying the outer- most E level are
called valence electrons
• Members of the same group (family) have the same
number of valence e-

127
 Valence e- & Octet Rule
• Electrons are added as you move from left to right
in a period

• Notice that the period number is the same as the

number of occupied energy levels

• Notice also that the group number is the same as

the number of electrons in the valence shell (Note: if >
10 remove the 1)

128
 Valence e- & Octet Rule

• Noble gases are stable because they have

completely filled energy shells

• Atoms bond in such a way as to create a stable

octet (duet)
[illustrate using NaCl]

129
 Your Task
• Draw energy diagrams and valence diagrams
for 6 elements of your choice. You must show
all of your work/steps
Ions
Let’s Get a Few Things
Straight
• Atoms = Proton # = electron #
neutral charge
Strive to be like Noble Gases
 Ions & Ionization - reference p 34 - 36
• Atoms "try" to become stable by having their
outer energy levels filled with electrons (like noble
gases). To do this they must either:
a) gain or lose electrons (ionization), or

b) share electrons with other atoms.

Eg. Na loses 1 e-  Na+ ion.

Cl gains 1 e-  Cl‑ ion.
• [draw Li and F ion E diagrams]

133
 Ions & Ionization
• When atoms gain or lose e‑, they become charged,
forming ionic species or ions

• Non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons to have a

full outer energy level. Negative ions are called
anions. [anion = a negative ion]

Eg. Cl + 1e‑  Cl‑

134
 Ions & Ionization
• Metals tend to lose electrons to have a full outer
energy level. Positive ions are called cations.

Eg. Na(s)  Na+ + 1e‑

135
 Ions
• Summary:
– Ions are formed by the gain or
loss of electrons
– Anions: gain electrons
(negative)
– Cations: lose electrons
(positive)
– Non-metals gain electron(s)
to become negative (anions)
– Metals lose electron(s) to
become positive (cations)
– Members of the noble gas
family do not ionize. Why????
 Naming Ions
• Metals do not change names when ionized
– Example: Sodium is still called sodium in a
compound. We simply add the word ion if it is
alone
• Non-metals have the last three letters of their
names changed to “ide:
– Example: Chlorine becomes chloride
 Multivalent Elements
• Some atoms can exist as more than one ion
type

• On the periodic table the most common form

of the ion is listed first

Example: Cu2+ and Cu1+

138
 Recall that…
• Ionic Compounds form when we transfer
valence electrons

• Molecular Compounds form when we share

valence electrons
 Lewis Dot Diagrams
• Only looks at Valence electrons
Rules:
1) The element symbol represents the nucleus and
inner-filled energy levels
2) A “dot”, “x”, or “O” represents valence electrons
3) There are 4 valence orbitals of the valence energy
level
4) Each valence electron is distributed like compass
points but must fill up 1 each before doubling up
Lewis vs. Bohr
 Your Task
• Check & Reflect p 39
#1 – 12
• Draw 5 Lewis dot
models NOT in the
examples and must be a
representative element
(#1-20)
• Practice Questions in
notes
 n d s
p ou
Com
 Compounds
• Categories of Compounds:
1) Ionic (metal + non-metal)
2) Molecular (non-metal + non-metal)
3) Intermetallic (metal + metal combinations)
 Compounds
1) Ionic Compounds: metal/non-metal
combination
-Positive charge and negative charge combinations
-They are all solid at SATP (standard ambient
temperature and pressure)
-Dissolve in water to form electrolytes

Conduct electricity
 Take
Electrons
Ionic Compounds
Identify the ionic compound(s)
• Na3N
• CS2
• SbBr3
• H2O
End in “OH”- hydroxide
Bases are Ionic Compounds
• Feel slippery
• Turns litmus paper blue
• Have a bitter taste
• Have a pH greater than 7.0
 Also known as
Covalent Compounds Compounds Share
electrons

2) Molecular Compounds: non-metal and

non-metal combinations (no charges!)
- They can be solid, liquid or gas @ SATP
-Do not conduct electricity
 Acids are Molecular Compounds
• Unlike other molecular substances in water,
acids DO conduct electricity
• pH less than 7
• Taste sour

H+  Hydrogen ion
 Recall…
• Acids and bases will neutralize each other to
form salts and water
 Compounds
3) Intermetallics: metal and metal combinations
• Made of two or more different metal atoms
Example: brass copper + zinc
bronze  copper + tin
 Compounds

Ionic Compounds Molecular

- Solid at SATP Compounds
- aq (soluble in
- aq
water) -
- Conduct Conduct electricity
- pH less than 7
electricity -
- pH greater than 7 Blue  red
- Sour
- Red blue
- Corrosive
- Bitter, slippery
 Chemical Bonds
• Forces of attraction between atoms

Ionic: Taken (stronger)

Molecular: Shared 155
 Types of Bonds
Ionic Bonds
• An ionic bond is formed by the attraction of
oppositely charged atoms or groups of atoms.
When an atom (or group of atoms) gains or
loses one or more electrons, it forms an ion.

Remember:
-Cation = positive

-Anion = negative
 Types of Bonds Let’s Draw a
Lewis Dot to
Covalent/ Molecular Bonds Explain!!!!

• A covalent chemical bond results from the

sharing of electrons between two atoms
• A single covalent bond represent the sharing of
two valence electrons (usually from two different
atoms).
• The Lewis structure below represents the
covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms in a
H2 molecule.
 Summary
• Ionic Compounds form when we transfer
valence electrons

• Molecular Compounds form when we share

valence electrons
 Remember…
• Metals do not change names when ionized

• Non-metals have the last three letters of their name

changed to “ide”

• Composed of metallic cations ( +charged) and a non

metal anion ( - charge)

• Form because of the attraction between + and -

charges
 Naming Compounds
• Recall that compounds are pure substances which
are combinations of two or more elements.

• To form compounds, at least two atoms must form

ions. One atom will lose an electron, while the
other will gain the electron

• Compounds can be classified by the type of

chemical bonds they have:
1. Ionic
2. Molecular 160
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Zl5Y4earhM

Two types of Compounds:

1. Compounds which are combinations of metals
and non‑metals are called ionic compounds.
• Number of electrons lost will always equal the
number of electrons gained  electrically neutral
• Subscripts are used to represent the number of
ions in a compound

2. Combinations of non‑metals with other

non‑metals are called molecular (covalent)
compounds. 161
 Ionic Compounds
• Collisions between non‑metal atoms and metal
atoms results in electron transfer, forming
electrically charged ions. The attractions of
oppositely charged ions are called ionic bonds.
Eg. KCl

162
 Ionic Compounds
• These bonds form a 3‑D crystal lattice
arrangement of ions and the resulting compound
is called an ionic compound.

163
 Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are; solids at room temperature,
dissolve in water to some extent, and conduct
electricity when in solution.

164
 Types of Ions:
• Monoatomic (simple) ions
‑ Formed from single atoms.
Eg. Ag+, Al3+, etc.

• Polyatomic (complex) ions

‑ Formed from groups of atoms &
behave as a single unit.
Eg. CH3COO‑, PO43‑, NO3‑, SO42‑

166
 Ionic Compounds: Important Rule
• IN AN IONIC COMPOUND ....…
TOTAL POSITIVE CHARGE = TOTAL NEGATIVE CHARGE
(Example: net charge = 0)

Eg. Sodium chloride

Na+ + Cl‑ -> NaCl You need to
balance the
Ca 2+ + F- -> CaF2 charges

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h79HW83aoEw&feature=relmfu
 Naming Ionic Compounds
reference p 40 - 46

NOMENCLATURE AND FORMULA WRITING

• IUPAC rules for naming (same in any language)

1. Binary Ionic Compounds
2. Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szhKhCrjUDI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NUVO_TKi6Vo&feature=relmfu
168
 1. Ionic Compounds
Nomenclature
‑ Name of metal ion (cation) followed by name of
non‑metal (anion) ion suffix (ide).

- Use lower case letters.

- Name gives no indication of the number of each

ion present.
(Can be determined by balancing overall charge)
Eg. calcium chloride - (CaCl2)
169
 1. Ionic Compounds
• If the metal can exist as ions with differing
charges (eg. Cu), the ion charge is indicated
with a Roman numeral in parentheses after
the metal ions name.
Eg. copper (I) chloride = CuCl
copper (II) chloride = CuCl2

170
 1. Ionic Compounds
Formula Writing
- Symbol of metal ion followed by symbol of
non‑metal ion.
- Ion ratio is indicated by numerical subscripts (no
subscript means one).

Eg. NaCl, CuCl2, Fe2O3

1:1 1:2 2:3

171
 1. Ionic Compounds

Ratios are determined by balancing overall

positive and negative charge

Eg. potassium oxide = K2O

aluminium sulfide = Al2S3
aluminium oxide 2 Al3+ + 3O2‑  Al2O3

172
 Summary of Writing and Naming Ionic
Compounds
1) Write the metal (cation) first using the element
name

2) Write the nonmetal (anion) 2nd using the anion

name and changing the last part to “ide”

3) Use the charges on each ion to determine the

lowest whole # ratio that produces an overall
charge of zero
 Multivalent Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds where the metal can have
multiple charges
– Example:
 Multivalent Compounds
• The charge that is listed first is the most
common charge
– Example:
Cu2+ Cu+
Fe3+ Fe2+
• When there is more than 1 charge listed we
MUST specify which charge was used with
Roman Numerals
 Multivalent Compounds
Rules:
1. Name the metal using the element name and
follow with the roman numeral that corresponds
to the charge

2. The negative charged ion will take the anion name

 NO ROMAN Numerals
 Your Task
• Practice Problems 1 & 2 p 43-44
 Polyatomic Ionic Compounds(Table of
Polyatomics)
• Poly “many”
• Atomic “atoms”
• Groupings of atoms that make their own special
ion
• Unlike a molecule which is neutral, these
complex substances are like ions and carry a
charge
• CANNOT exist alone, they are neutralized by
combining with another ion
 Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
Nomenclature
‑ Name of positive ion followed by name of
negative ion.
Eg. NH4Cl, NH4OH

Parentheses may be required to keep

numerical subscripts apart.
Eg. Cu(NO3)2

181
 Polyatomic Ions aka Complex Ions
• Poly  “many”
• Atomic  “atoms”
• Groupings of atoms that make their own special
ion
• Unlike a molecule which is neutral, these
complex substances are like ions and carry an
electric charge
• CAN NOT exist alone, they are neutralized by
combining with another ion
 Polyatomic Ions
• Naming Polyatomic Compounds
– The positive ion is named first followed by the
negative ion

– Parentheses may be required to keep numerical

subscripts apart
 Polyatomics
– The positive ion is named first followed by
the negative ion

– The one with the lesser number of oxygen

atoms has an “ite” ending while the one
with the greater number of oxygen atoms
has an “ate” ending
• Nitrate vs. Nitrite
 Polyatomic
The most common polyatomic ions are:
Ions
• Ammonium NH4+
• Carbonate CO32-
• Chlorate ClO3-
• Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4-
• Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
• Hydroxide OH-
• Nitrate NO3-
• Nitrite NO2-
• Permanganate MnO4-
• Phosphate PO4-3
• Sulfate SO4-2
• Sulfite SO3-2

And the best part about these is that you will need to memorize them
 2. Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
Formula Writing
‑ Positive ion first, negative ion last, using
numerical subscripts to indicate ion ratio
(found by balancing overall charge).
Eg. iron (III) oxalate,
ammonium chlorate,
ruthenium (III) borate
magnesium nitrate

You get to copy these down in

your notes at the bottom of
the page!!! 186
 Solubility
• Ionic compounds usually dissolve in water(aq) BUT
some form a precipitate (solid matter)

• Can dissolve (soluble) = (aq) “aqueous”

• Cannot dissolve (non-soluble)= (s) – leave it solid

• We can use the solubility table to identify (aq) and

(s) ionic compounds
 Solubility of Ions in Water
• Group 1 metals and NH4+, H+, ClO3-, NO3- and ClO3- are all soluble in water

• CH3COO- when in compounds is soluble in water except when added to

Ag+

• Br-, Cl- and I- are soluble in water except when added to Ag+, Pb2+, and Cu+

• SO4-2 is soluble in water unless mixed with Ca 2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+, Pb2+, and
Ag+

• OH- is soluble in water when combined with Group 1 elements, NH 4+, Sr2+
or Ba2+

• PO4-3, SO3-2 and CO3-2 are soluble in water only when added to Group 1
elements and NH +
 A Few Examples…
• Lead (II) iodide=

• Sodium bromide=

• Potassium sulfate=

• Magnesium hydroxide=

*If you DO NOT find the ions in the table

assume it is a solid
 Ionic Compounds Review
• Five properties that ionic compounds have in
common
– Have high melting points
– Are solid at room temperature
– Form crystal lattices
– Will dissolve in water to a certain extent
– When dissolved in water, the solution will
conduct an electric current
 Your Task

Practice Problems 3 & 4 p 46

 e ! ! ! !
T i m
Q u iz
State if the following are soluble in water
• Sodium chloride
• Ag(NO3)
• Magnesium sulfate
• Calcium sulfate
• Be(OH)2
• Na3(PO4)
• Lithium chlorate

Name or write the formula for the following compounds. As

well as state if they are soluble or insoluble
• Pb(SO4)2
• Al(CN)3
• Chromium (lll) hydroxide
• Cu3P
• Tin(ll) nitrite
• Fe(NO3)3
 Molecular Compounds
(aka covalent compounds)

If no metal atoms are available to give electrons to

non-metal atoms, the non‑metal atoms share
electrons to fill their outer energy levels.

The bond which forms when electrons are shared is

called a covalent bond.

195
 Molecular Compounds
(aka covalent compounds)
Covalent (molecular) compounds exist as separate
molecules, unlike the lattice of ionic compounds
Eg. F2, H2O

Covalent bonds are usually not as strong as ionic

bonds (more easily broken).
196
 Molecular Compounds
(aka covalent compounds)

Molecular compounds can be solids, liquids or gases

at room temperature.

Molecular compounds tend to be poor conductors of

electricity

197
 Electronegativity
The strength with which an atom holds onto its
outer (valence) electrons affects covalent
bonding.
On the periodic table, electronegativity increases
as you go up and to the right.
Fluorine is the most
electronegative
element.

198
 Molecular Elements
Recall that some elements exist as molecular
elements when in pure form

ie. diatomic (HOBrFINCl At) and

polyatomic (P4 & S8)

199
 Diatomic Molecular Elements

• ALWAYS have 2 atoms

• ALL ELEMENTS IN GROUP 17 ARE DIATOMICS
• H2(g), N2(g), O2(g), F2(g), Cl2(g), Br2(l), I2(s), At2(s)

Polyatomics (not the type in their own special table)

• Phosphorous and Sulfur
 Molecular Compounds
‑ Two different kinds of non‑metal atoms joined by
covalent bonds.

Nomenclature ‑ use lower case

- (numerical prefix) + first name; (numerical prefix) +
second name with (ide) suffix.
(The prefix "mono" is usually omitted)

Eg. N2O5, H2O, H2S

201
 Prefixes
• Mono 1
• Di 2
• Tri  3
• Tetra  4
• Penta  5
• Hexa 6
• Hepta  7
• Octa  8
• Nona 9
• Deca
 Binary Molecular Compounds
Formula Writing
‑ Write symbols in same order as in name
‑ numerical prefix = numerical subscript
(omitted when "one")

eg. silicon tetrahydride

oxygen dibromide
carbon tetrafluoride

204
 Molecular Compounds
Memorize Common Molecular Names and Formulas;
ammonia - NH3
glucose - C6H12O6
sucrose - C12H22O11
hydrogen peroxide - H2O2
hydrogen sulfide - H2S
methane - CH4
Propane- C3H8(g)
Methanol- CH3OH(l)
Acetic Acid- CH3COOH(aq)
Ethanol - C2H5OH(l)
205
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_W177RKt0U&feature=relmfu
Anomalous Properties of Water Reference
p 60

Water is a polar molecule and exhibits some

‘unusual’ properties:
• adhesion & cohesion (surface tension)
• high c
• high mp & bp
• density

206
 Naming Molecules that Contain Hydrogen

• H2O(l) – water
• H2O2(l) – hydrogen peroxide
• NH3(g)- ammonia
• C12H22O11(s)- sucrose
You need to
• C6H12O6(s) – glucose
memorize
• H2S(g)- hydrogen sulfide these !
• CH4(g) – methane
• C3H8(g) – propane
• CH3OH(l)- methanol
• CH3COOH(aq) – acetic acid vinegar
 Your Task
Practise Problem 5 p 49

Check and Reflect p 50 # 1 -12

Supplemental p 77 # 28, 36 Check Answers p 495

Do Check and Reflect

p 61 # 6 & 8
Acids and Bases
 Arrhenius
• Arrhenius proposed that any
substance that:
– Produces hydrogen ions when dissolved
in water = acid
– Produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water
= base

• We now refer to these as Arrhenius Acids and

Bases
 Acids
• (aq), (s), (l), or (g) at room temp
• Soluble in water (to some degree)
• Solutions conduct electricity
• React with active metals to produce H 2 (g).
• Taste sour
• Turns blue litmus paper red
• pH of <7
• Identified by the presence of a H +
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70fot8t9zts&feature=relmfu
 Acids
• Strong Acids:
– Hydrochloric acid(HCl)
– Nitric acid (HNO3 )
– Sulfuric acid (H2SO4 )
– Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
– Hydroiodic acid (HI)
– Perchloric acid (HClO4 )
It is in your best interest
to become very familiar
with these acids. This will
save you significant
amounts of time,
especially on exams.

• Strong acids will completely ionize  conductive

• Weak acids will not ionize  low conductivity
 Bases
• Usually solids
• Usually soluble in water.
• Do not react with active metals.
• Solutions conduct electricity.
• Feel slippery, taste bitter.
• pH >7
• Red litmus paper turns blue
• Identified by the presence of a OH -

213
 Summary
Property Acid Base
Taste Sour Bitter

Feel Wet Slippery

Reaction with Mg Produce Hydrogen gas No reaction

Indicator Turns blue litmus red Turns red litmus blue

Conductive Yes Yes

pH <7 >7
 pH scale
• Describes whether a substance is acidic, neutral
or basic (alkaline)
• Refers to the potency or strength of hydrogen
ions present in the substance

215
 pH Scale
• Each number change represents a ten-fold
change in the hydrogen ion concentration.
– For example, a pH of 1 is 10 times stronger than a
pH of 2
 Indicators
• Chemicals used to determine whether a solution
is acidic or basic
• Change color at different pH

Example: litmus paper

- bases -> turn red
litmus blue
- acids -> turn blue
litmus paper red
217
 Indicators Reference p 63

• Some other
indicators 
• The Universal indicator
is a mixture of several
liquid indicators that
turn different colors
when exposed to
hydrogen ions

218
 Buffers
• Any substance that keeps the pH of a solution
nearly neutral even is a small amount of acid or
base is added

• Example: sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) – is

in the bloodstream. It neutralizes both acids and
bases that enter the blood.
 Acid Nomenclature
Acid Nomenclature ‑ name as an ionic compound and
then switch name according to acid naming table (next
slide) or....
"aqueous" before the ionic name.

No one really uses this nomenclature anymore. So you do not

need to worry about it for the purposes of this course

An acid formula should always be followed by the

subscript (aq), meaning dissolved in water.
220
 Acid Nomenclature
• Hydrogen ion acts like a
positive charge
– Will be paired up with a
negative charge
 Classical Naming System for Acids
1. If a substance ends with “ide” the
acid becomes “hydro ic acid”
- Hydrogenide becomes

hydro ic acid
Example: See notes
 Classical Naming
2. If the substance ends with “ate” the acid
becomes “ ic acid”
- Hydrogen ate becomes

ic acid
Examples: See notes
 Classical Naming

3. If the substance ends with “ite” the

acid becomes “ ous acid”
-Hydrogen ite becomes
ous acid
Examples: See notes
 Acid Naming Table
• hydrogen _ide becomes hydro_ic acid

• hydrogen _ate becomes _ic acid

• hydrogen _ite becomes _ous acid

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70fot8t9zts
226
 Or….
• H+ ide  hydro ic acid
Hydrochloric acid 

• H+ ite  ous acid

Sulfurous acid

• H+ ate ic acid
Nitric acid
 Exceptions
• Hydrogen ions can hide at the end of the formula

• Organic acids  Formulas begin with carbon and

end with H ions (hard to tell apart from bases)
– Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)  acetic acid
 Acid Naming
• H2S
• HClO3
• H2SO4 Let’s name
and write
• HNO3
the
• H2SO3 formulas for
• HNO2 these
• HClO wonderful
acids!!!
• Phosphoric acid
• Hydroiodic acid
• Hypochlorous acid
 Nomenclature of Bases

• For this course we will consider bases to

contain the hydroxide ion (OH)

• Name as an ionic compound

[Note: -COOH is an acid]

230
 Naming Bases
• The name of a base always ends in “hydroxide”

• Some common Bases

– Sodium hydroxide
– Ammonium hydroxide
– Calcium hydroxide
– Magnesium hydroxide
 Neutralization Reaction
Reference p 68

When an acid and a base are mixed they

neutralize each other by producing water
and a salt. (more later but be aware that salt doesn’t always
mean NaCl)

ACID BASE
H+ + OH- = HOH

Buffer ‑ has the ability to neutralize either an

acid or base solution

232
 Task as a Class
Check & Reflect p 69 # 3,4 & 7
Acid and Bases Naming Worksheets (included in
your notes)
Chemical Change

• Is a process that
involves recombining
chemical bonds
between atoms and
energy flow.

• New substances are

formed.

234
 Collision Reaction Theory
• For a chemical reaction to take place:
– Particles of the reactants must collide
before a rearrangement can
occur
– A minimum energy is required of the
particles
– A certain orientation is required of the
particles for successful
rearrangement

235
 Reactions

Reactants - the substances which go into a

chemical change.

Products - the substances which come out of

a chemical change.

Reactants Products
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) --> 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g)

236
 Rules for Chemical Equations
• Use proper chemical symbols
• Reactants on left, arrow pointing to
products on right
• Show states of matter (s, l, g, or aq)
[Note: p 80]
• Are balanced (matter is conserved)
• include energy when possible
More to come

237
 Energy Changes Reference p 81 - 82

• In the formation of ionic

compounds a considerable
amount of energy (heat) may be
absorbed (endothermic) or
released (exothermic).

• Spontaneous reaction - occurs

on its own - when reactants are
in contact.

238
 Exothermic Reaction Reference p 81
LINK & LINK TOO

• The energy not used to fuel the reaction (excess

energy) is released to the surroundings. (energy
written as product)

Eg. combustion of methane

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) + E

• energy stored in newly formed bonds is less

than the energy available from the breaking of
bonds in the reactants.
 Endothermic Reaction Reference p 81 link link too
• Reactions which require energy from outside
the system to drive the reaction. (energy written as
reactant)
Eg. Cold pack
NH4Cl(s) + H2O(l) + E  NH4+(aq) + Cl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

• Energy required to form the new bonds is

greater than the energy stored in the bonds of
the reactants.

241
 Biochemical Reactions Reference p 82
• Essential to all life on Earth
Respiration
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) --> 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) + E

Photosynthesis
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) + E --> C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)

[also chemosynthesis]
242
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions
Reference p 84

• Colour or density
change
• Gas produced (bubbles,
new odour)
• Energy change (heat,
light, electricity)
• A solid (precipitate) forms
or dissolves

243
 Conservation of Mass Reference p 84
• Antoine Lavoisier
showed that the total
number of each kind
of atom remains the
same in a reaction.

That lady who did a lot of work

but because of her gender
doesn’t get any credit
Father of Modern Chemistry
 Your Task
• Check and Reflect p 85 #1-7,10,11
 Recall…
• Reactants- the substances which go into a
chemical change

• Products- the substances which come out of a

chemical change
 Recall…
• Word equations: use the “ chemical formula”

• Formula Equations: use the “ chemical

formulas” of reactants and products to
represent a reaction
 Recall
• Skeleton Equations: a formula equation that
shows the identities of the substances
involved in the reaction and which elements
are present.
 Recall…
• Balanced Equations: integers called
“Coefficients” are used to show equal number
of each element present on both sides
 Conservation of Mass
• The amount of the reactants equals the
amount of the products
Law of Conservation of Mass & Balanced
Equations

• Chemical equations must be

balanced this is important
when writing chemical
equations

251
Chemical Equation Basics 101

• Coefficient- the number in

front of a symbol; represents the number of atoms
or molecules
- 3Na
Coefficient
• Subscript- the number behind the symbol;
represents the amount of each atom
- N2O5
Subscript
 Chemical Equations Basics 102
• Recall that the following elements NEVER exist
as single atoms. They are represented as
shown:
N2 H2
O2 F2
Cl2 Br2
I2 At2
S8 P4
* Sometimes H O is written as HOH
 Chemical Equations Reference p 86 - 88

• Adding coefficients to a skeleton equation,

balances the equation to show the same
number of atoms, of each type, on either side
of the equation.
• Coefficients in equations may be read as # of
molecules, or # of moles.

254
 Hints for Balancing Equations (NIT)
1. Make sure all reactants and products are written
with correct formulas.

2. Balance each atom, one at a time, using numerical

coefficients (leave O and H to the end).
2a. Balance complex ions as groups

3. Check if the coefficients can be reduced by a

common divisor.

4. Sometimes writing water as HOH can make the

solution easier to see.
 l e …
xa mp
A nE
s D o
Let ’
 Remember
• When counting elements don’t forget to look at the
subscript and coefficient
– P2O5 (has 2 phosphorous and 5 oxygen atoms)
– 2P2O5 (has 4 phosphorous and 10 oxygen atoms)

• Because there are 2 molecules (indicated by the

coefficient) and 2 atoms in each molecule (indicated
by the subscript)

• NEVER CHANGE A SUBSCRIPT TO BALANCE AN

EQUATION!!!!!! USE THE COEFFIECIENT INSTEAD!
 Let’s Do An Example Together
• The decomposition of dinitrogen pentaoxide
gas

Step 1: Represent the reactant and products

with formulas
N2O5(s)  N2(g) + O2(g)

Notice that I included the states

 • Step 2: When there is an odd number of
atoms of an element on one side and an even
number on the other side, find a common
multiple.
• For oxygen the common multiple of 5 and 2 is 10
This requires you to understand
what a multiple is

• Step 3: Multiply each formula by a coefficient

to represent the same number of atoms of
oxygen on both side
2N2O5(s)  N2(g) +5 O2(g)
• Step 4: Add coefficients to the remaining
formulas to balance the remaining atoms
2N2O5(s)  2N2(g) +5 O2(g)

• Step 5: Check to make sure all atoms are

balanced
Left side Right Side
4 N and 10 O 4 N and 10 O
 Balance the following example equations:

A. ___ Al(s) + ___ Br2(l) --> ___ AlBr3(s)

B. _ C6H12O6(s)+ _ O2(g) --> _ CO2(g)+ _ H2O(g)

C. Solid iron reacts with aqueous copper (II) chloride to

form aqueous iron (II) chloride and solid copper 261
Further Assistance on Balancing Equations

• http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQrV8RduttU
• http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=le5zr1kLE4U
• http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UeD32QsKYM&
feature=relmfu
 Your Task
Example Problem p 89
Practice Problem p 89 # 1 Check & Reflect p 90
# 3,6 – 9
[W/S Balancing Chemical Equations – Supplemental]
Five Reaction Types Reference p 91 - 106
1. Formation
(synthesis)
2. Decomposition
3. Hydrocarbon
Combustion
4. Single Replacement
5. Double
Replacement

264
 1. Formation (synthesis)
• Composition reactions
Reference p 91-93

• Two simple elements combine to form one complex

compounds.
• element + element --> compound
– A + B  AB
– Reactant + reactant = product

2 K(s) + I2(s) --> 2 KI(s) + thermal E

Example Problems p 92 & 93

 Let’s Do This Together…
• Example Problems p 92 & 93
2. Decomposition Reference p 94

• Complex compounds break down to form

elements
• Compound --> element + element
• ab  a + b You have to add energy to
the system in order for
Eg. water to separate
2 H2O(l) + electrical E --> 2 H2(g) + O2(g)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FyUvZ3ldtUU&feature=fvsr
 3. Single Replacement
Reference p 96 - 97

• Element + aqueous ionic compound --> new

Element + new ionic compound
• a + bc  b +ac
Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) -> Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
A + BC AC + B

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwH8I_K3yYM&feature=fvsr
 4. Double Replacement
Reference p 100 - 101
• Ionic compound + ionic compound new ionic
compound + new ionic compound
• ab + cd  ad + bc
Example
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NaI(aq) -> 2 NaNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

Example Problem p 100

Practice Problem p 100 # 9

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7TtOUf91VSU&feature=fvsr
 5. Hydrocarbon Combustion
(oxidation reactions) Reference p 95

• A compound reacts with oxygen to form the most

common oxide
• If O2 is not limited -> produces H2O(g), CO2, and
thermal/light energy

Eg. burning propane

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) -> 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g) + E

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CY9ldQjdgT8
 Oxygen Reactions
Oxygen is always present in these reactions!

1. Combustion Reactions

2. Corrosion Reactions: metal and oxygen

always the reactants

3. Cellular Respiration: Glucose always one of

the reactants
 Predicting Products
Reference p 102 - 105

• Using knowledge gained regarding

reaction types it is now possible to
predict products of reactions.
 Your Task
Example Problems p 100 - 105
Practice Problem p 103 #10 - 12
Check & Reflect p 106 # 1 – 8
[W/S Translating Formulae – Supplemental]
 What is a Mole?
• We use “convenient numbers” in everyday
situations
• A “convenient number” is a simplified way to
describe the number of things
• It is often easier to group objects when
counting them
 So What is a Mole?
• A mole is a counting unit. It tells us how many
objects there are.

• A pair and a dozen are also counting units

Pair means 2 objects

Dozen means 12 objects

Mole means 6.02x1023

objects
 So what is a Mole?
• A term used to represent the number of
objects

• The amount of any substance containing

6.02x1023 particles
– To define a mole, chemists measure carbon
– And we also call 6.02x1023 Avogadro's Number
 Where does this Number come from?
• Scientists took 12g of pure carbon-12
(composed of 6 protons+ 6 neutrons; mass
number =12) and counted how many carbon
atoms were in the sample

• Guess how many there were?

 Avogadro’s Number -The Mole Reference
p 107

• # of atoms in 12.0000 g of 12C is called

a mole (mol) = 6.02 x 1023 Avogadro’s #
• this number of atoms is observable and
measurable.
• coefficients in equations may be read
as # of molecules, or # of moles.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiVweBpjXJo&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqw2BWdKl1Q&feature=relmfu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7qjYRYxkso&feature=relmfu
283
 Mole Ratio
• The ratio of the coefficients gives us the mole
ratio.
2 Al(s) + 3 Br2(l)  2 AlBr3(s)

• In the balanced chemical equation above..

- if 3 mol of Br2 reacts, 2 mol of AlBr3 forms
- if 6 mol of Br2 reacts, 4 mol of AlBr3 forms... etc.

284
 Molar Mass
Reference p 108 - 109

• We can now calculate the mass of one mole

of a compound (molar mass ).
• Use the atomic molar mass (M), in g/mol
multiplied by the number of moles in the
chemical formula then add the masses of all
elements together

Example Problem p 108

 Eg. Find the molar mass of H2SO4(aq)
hydrogen atomic mass = 1.01 g/mol
# of moles in formula = 2
2 mol x 1.01 g/mol = 2.02 g
sulfur atomic mass = 32.06 g/mol
# of moles in formula = 1
1 mol x 32.06 g/mol = 32.06 g
oxygen atomic mass = 16.00 g/mol
# of moles in formula = 4
4 mol x 16.00 g/mol = 64.00 g
...molar mass of H2SO4 =
2.02 g + 32.06 g + 64.00 g = 98.08 g/mol
286
 Your Task
• PP p 108 # 13 – 16
 Mass <--> Mole Conversions

Chemists created the concept of molar mass

to convert between mass and chemical
amount

These conversions can be performed using a

formula (M=m/n) or the factor-label (unit
analysis) method.
288
 n= m/M
Where:
n= number of moles
However, you are much too
m= mass advance to use this formula
and are capable of using unit
M= molar mass analysis

Molar mass is often used as a conversion factor

because it contains the units grams and moles. Thus, it
can be used to convert grams to moles and moles to
grams.
 Example
• How many moles are there in 20 g of carbon?

• Find the number of moles of H2SO4 in a 100.0g

sample.
 Mole to Mass Conversion
• If we had a 4.60 mol amount of H2SO4, its
mass would be........
m = (4.60 mol)(98.08 g/mol)
m = 451 g

291
 Mass to Mole Conversion
• If we had a 0.58 g of H2SO4, its mole
amount would be........
n = (0.58 g)/(98.08 g/mol)
n = 56.8864 mol
n = 5.9 x 10 -3 mol

Example Problems p 109

Practice Problems p 108 - 109 # 13 - 20
Check & Reflect p 112 # 1 -12

292
 Your Task
Example Problems p 109
Practice Problems p 108 - 109 # 13 - 20
Check & Reflect p 112 # 1 -12
 Nuclear Reactions (NIT)
Chemical reactions involve the valence electrons
and the bonds which they form (formation of new
molecules).

Nuclear reactions changes in

the atom's nucleus, the
formation of a different atom
and thus a new element.

294
Nuclear Reactions (NIT)
In nuclear reactions mass
changes into electromagnetic
radiation (E = mc2).

Nuclear reactions involve up to

106 times more energy than
chemical reactions. The high
energy radiation given off is
usually X‑rays or gamma rays.

295
 Nuclear Reactions (NIT)
Radioactivity is the emission of particles and
radiation from an atom's nucleus.
Some isotopes of an atom's nucleus have an unstable
ratio of protons to neutrons which makes them
radioactive (radioisotopes).
These atoms undergo radioactive decay to become
more stable isotopes.

Eg. Carbon‑ 14 14
C  14
N + radiation

296
 Unit REVIEW
• Use Section Reviews
• p 27
• p 76 - 77
• p 113
and Unit Summary/Review
• p 116 - 121
to help you prepare for the Unit Exam
(selected answers on pg 498)

But not really because that

would be mean and
inappropriate 297
 Quiz
1. Acetic Acid
2. Hydrochloric acid
3. Nitrous acid
4. H2CO3
5. H2SO4
6. Magnesium hydroxide
7. Chloric Acid
8. Calcium hydroxide
9. What is the molar mass of an unknown oil if 57.29g
of the oil contains 0.15mol?
10. How many grams are in 5.2 moles of potassium
sulfide?