Chapter 1

Introduction to Chemistry

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Chapter Objectives

• Explain what is meant by the term critical materials

• Explain the usefulness of the macroscopic, microscopic, and
symbolic perspectives in understanding chemical systems
• Draw pictures to illustrate simple chemical phenomena, like
the differences among solids, liquids, and gases, on the
molecular scale
• Explain the difference between inductive and deductive
reasoning in your own words
• Use appropriate ratios to convert measurements from one
unit to another
• Express the results of calculations using the correct number
of significant figures
Critical Materials

Critical materials possess unique chemical and physical

properties that allow them to play vital roles in technology
• Prone to disruption in availability

• Lithium is considered a near-critical material because of its use

in lithium batteries, which power many devices

• Chemists and engineers are considering ways to replace critical

materials with other elements that may be less prone to
disruption
Critical Materials
Critical Materials
Magnetic behavior of a ferrofluid
The colors of quantum dots
Movement of a nanowheel
 Nanotube gear
A basic definition is: engineering of functional systems at the
molecular scale.

This covers current work and concepts that are more advanced.
In its original sense, ‘nanotechnology’ refers to the projected ability to
construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being
developed today to make complete, high performance products.
Nanotechnology not only will allow making many high-quality products at
very low cost, but it will allow making new nanofactories at the same low
cost and at the same rapid speed.

This unique (outside of biology, that is) ability to reproduce its own means
of production is why nanotech is said to be an exponential technology.

It represents a manufacturing system that will be able to make more

manufacturing systems—factories that can build factories—rapidly,
cheaply, and cleanly.

The means of production will be able to reproduce exponentially, so in

just a few weeks a few nanofactories conceivably could become billions.

It is a revolutionary, transformative, powerful, and potentially very

dangerous—or beneficial—technology.
Scanning tunneling micrographs

Cesium atoms on gallium

Gold surface
arsenide surface
The Scientific Method

• Chemists use the scientific method to solve problems

• Make observations of nature

• Derive a hypothesis or build a model in response to

observations

• Construct experiments to bolster or refute the hypothesis or

model
The Study of Chemistry

• The study of chemistry involves three levels of understanding

or three perspectives
• Macroscopic

• Microscopic

• Symbolic
The Macroscopic Perspective
• Matter is anything that has mass and can be observed

• Matter is observed through two types of changes

• Physical changes

• Chemical changes
The Macroscopic Perspective (continued 1)

• Physical properties are variables of matter that we can

measure without changing the identity of the substance being
observed
• Include mass, density, color, viscosity, hardness, and
temperature
• The density of an object is a ratio of its mass to its volume

• Example: Aluminum metal has a high malleability

The Macroscopic Perspective (continued 2)

• Chemical properties are determined only by observing how a

substance changes its identity in chemical reactions
• Pure aluminum metal reacts with acid, such as in soft drinks, to
form an aluminum salt and hydrogen gas

• The ability of a compound to burn in oxygen, or combustion, is

another chemical property

• The degradation of metals in the presence of air and moisture,

or corrosion, is another common chemical property
The Macroscopic Perspective (continued 3)

• There are three phases of matter

• Solids are hard and do not change their shapes easily at
ordinary temperatures

• Liquids assume the shape of the portion of the container they fill

• Gases expand to occupy the entire volume of their containers

The Microscopic or Particulate
Perspective
• Matter is composed of minute particles called atoms that
retain the chemical identity of the element they represent

• An element is composed of atoms with identical physical and

chemical properties

• Molecules are groups of atoms held together by attractive

forces whose properties are distinguishable from those of the
individual elements
The Microscopic Perspective

• Solid: Particles maintain a regular ordered structure

• Maintains size and shape
• Liquid: Particles remain close but no longer ordered
• Takes shape of container
• Gas: Particles are widely separated and move independently
of one another
• Fills available volume of container
The Microscopic Perspective (continued 1)

• During a physical
change, chemical
composition does not
change
• Heating liquid water to
make gaseous water or
steam
The Microscopic Perspective (continued 2)

• During a chemical change, a chemical reaction that occurs

changes the chemical composition of the matter involved
• Using electricity to convert water into oxygen and hydrogen
molecules
The Symbolic Representation

• Symbols are used to represent the atoms, molecules,

and reactions

• Pure aluminum, Al
• Aluminum oxide, Al2O3
The Symbolic Representation (continued)

Particulate-level Particulate-level
representation of representation of
neodymium oxide, Nd2O3 neodymium magnet,
Nd2Fe14B
The Science of Chemistry:
Observations, Models, and Systems
• Chemistry is an empirical science and is studied by:
• Measuring physical properties and observing chemical
reactions

• Creating models to explain observations and organizing

collected data
Observations in Science

• Observations are recorded via measurements

• Accuracy: How close the observed value is to the “true” value

• Precision: The spread in values obtained from measurements

Observations in Science

• Observations are recorded via measurements

• Accuracy: How close the observed value is to the “true” value

• Precision: The spread in values obtained from measurements

Observations in Science (continued 1)

• Measurements can have

poor precision and poor
accuracy
• Darts are widely scattered
and far away from the
target
Observations in Science (continued 2)

• Measurements can have

good precision and poor
accuracy
• Darts are clustered
together but are clustered
far from the bull’s-eye
Observations in Science (continued 3)

• Measurements can have

good precision and good
accuracy
• Darts are clustered
together and close to the
target
Observations in Science (continued 4)

• Types of errors in measurements

• Random error: May make a measurement randomly too
high or too low
• Variation associated with equipment limitations

• Systematic error: May make a measurement consistently

too high or too low
• The presence of an impurity
 Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

precise and accurate

precise but not accurate

 Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

random error

systematic error
Interpreting Observations

• Inductive and deductive reasoning are used to interpret

collected data and observations
• Inductive reasoning begins with a series of specific
observations and attempts to generalize to a larger, more
universal conclusion

• Deductive reasoning takes two or more statements or

assertions and combines them so that a clear and
irrefutable conclusion can be drawn
Interpreting Observations (continued)

• Scientists and engineers use inductive and deductive

reasoning to solve problems in complex systems
• This is called systems thinking
• What are the components involved?

• How do those components interact or connect to each other?

• What is the ultimate function of the whole system?

Models in Science

• Scientific model: Largely empirical description

• Gas pressure is proportional to temperature

• Scientific theory: Explanation grounded in some more

fundamental principle or assumption about the behavior of a
system
• Relationship between gas pressure and temperature is
explained using kinetic energy

• Laws: Sufficiently refined, well tested, and widely accepted

theories
Numbers and Measurements in
Chemistry
• Chemists quantify data, expressing collected data with units
and significant figures
• Units: Designate the type of quantity measured

• Prefixes: Provide scale to a base unit

• Significant Figures: Indicate the amount of information that is

reliable when discussing a measurement
Units

• Base unit designates the type of quantity being measured

• SI units are the base units of science
• Some units comprise combinations of these base units and
are termed derived units
• 1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2
Units (continued)

• Prefixes are used with base units to report and understand

quantities of any size
SI Prefixes

• Prefixes are based on multiples of 10

Expansion of SI Prefixes

27th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), Paris, November, 2022

C&E News, Vol 100, 43 (2022) 11

Temperature

• Temperature is measured using the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and

Kelvin temperature scales
Temperature Scale Conversions

o
F = (1.8 × o C) + 32
o
C = ( o F – 32)/1.8
o
K = C + 273.15
o
C = K − 273.15
Numbers and Significant Figures

• Scientific notation is used to easily write very small and very

large numbers
• Numbers written using scientific notation factor out all powers of
ten
Numbers and Significant Figures (continued
1)

• All digits reported are considered significant except for certain

types of zeros
• When a zero establishes the decimal place, it is not significant
• 51,300 m: 3 significant figures
• 0.043 g: 2 significant figures

• A zero is significant when it follows a decimal point or when it

occurs between other significant figures
• 4.30 mL: 3 significant figures
• 304.2 kg: 4 significant figures

• All numbers are significant when written in correct scientific

notation
Numbers and Significant Figures (continued
2)

• For calculated values, the number of significant figures should

be consistent with the data used in the calculation
• For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures
in a result must be the same as the number of significant
figures in the factor with the fewest significant figures

• For addition and subtraction, the number of significant figures is

determined from the position of the first uncertain digit
Numbers and Significant Figures (continued
3)

• When counting discrete objects, the result has no ambiguity

• Such measurements use exact numbers

• They have infinite significant figures

• Two pennies would be 2.000000…

• Exactly defined terms, such as metric prefixes, are also

considered exact numbers
Problem Solving in Chemistry and
Engineering
• There are several categories of problems
• Calculations involving ratios

• Conceptual understanding of the particulate level

• Visualization of phenomena on different levels

Using Ratios

• Ratios represent the relationship between two quantities and

can be expressed in two ways
Ratios in Chemistry Calculations

• Mass Density: Ratio of an object’s mass to its volume

• Temperature and compound specific

• Allows conversion between mass and volume

• Units of measurement can be used to determine how to write

the appropriate ratio by “canceling”out

• This type of reasoning is called dimensional analysis or the

factor-label method
Conceptual Chemistry Problems

• Conceptual problems focus on the particulate

perspective of chemistry

• Depictions of atoms and molecules are used to

visualize molecular phenomena
Example Problem 1.7

• Draw a picture that shows what carbon dioxide

molecules might look like as a solid and as a gas
Visualization in Chemistry

• Chemistry provides multiple ways to view problems

• Depictions of atoms and molecules provide one important tool

in the way chemistry is taught and learned

• We can explore this idea by thinking about the refining of

cobalt
Visualization in Chemistry (continued)

• When a mixture of cobalt and nickel sulfides is treated with

ammonia, the metals become bound to ammonia molecules and
dissolve into the liquid phase, separating them from any other
materials that may have been present
• Adjusting the conditions of the solution causes the cobalt-ammonia
complex to solidify, leaving the nickel in solution
• Finally, the solid cobalt complex is treated with hydrogen to
produce cobalt metal
Visualization in Chemistry (continued)
Touchscreen Technology

• Indium tin oxide (ITO) provides the position-dependent

sensitivity to touch that allows touchscreen devices to work
• Example of a doped semiconductor, which is needed in
order for the current to be detectable
• Optically transparent, which means that it does not
interfere with the light that is going through the
touchscreen and generating the images one sees
• Touchscreen devices need a rugged glass surface in order to
be functional
• Gorilla Glass
 Essential Components of a Touchscreen

• Touchscreen display consists of a number of stacked layers

• LCD screen at the bottom of the stack produces the image
• Two thin, transparent layers of ITO are separated by a
transparent insulating layer
• When the screen is touched, one ITO
sheet locates the x-coordinate and
the other locates the y-coordinate
• Entire assembly is covered by a
glass sheet designed to resist
breakage
Liquid Crystal Display
Liquid Crystal Display