University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

Cagayan de Oro City

1st Semester SY 2021 - 2022
TOPIC 1

BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

2
Outline

I. Basics of Chemistry
•The Study of Chemistry
•The Science of Chemistry: Observations and Models
•Numbers and Measurements in Chemistry
•Problem Solving in Chemistry and Engineering
•Periodic Table of the Elements
•Chemical Reactions: Equations
•Mass and Moles of Substance
•Determining Chemical Formulas
•Stoichiometry
3
Learning Outcomes

•Explain the usefulness of the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic perspectives in

understanding chemical systems.
•Draw pictures to illustrate simple chemical phenomena (like the differences among solids,
liquids, and gases) on the molecular scale.
•Explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning.
•Use appropriate ratios to convert measurements from one unit to another.
•Express the results of calculations using the correct number of significant figures.
•Recognize the portions of the periodic table that contain the metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids (semimetals).
•Identify the reactants and products in a chemical equation.

4
Learning Outcomes

•Write chemical equations using appropriate phase labels, symbols of reaction conditions,
and the presence of a catalyst.
•Determine if a chemical reaction is balanced.
•Master the techniques for balancing chemical equations.
•Establish a critical relationship between the mass of a chemical substance and the quantity
of that substance (in moles).
•Explore how the percentage composition and mass percentage of the elements in a
chemical substance can be used to determine the chemical formula.
•Develop a molar interpretation of chemical equations, which then allows for calculation of
the quantities of reactants and products.

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The Study of Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter

undergoes.

• The study of chemistry involves three levels of understanding, or

three perspectives.
• Macroscopic
• Microscopic
• Symbolic

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The Macroscopic Perspective

• Matter is anything that has mass and

can be observed.

• Matter is observed through two types of

changes.
• Physical changes
• Chemical changes

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The Macroscopic Perspective

Physical properties are variables of matter that we can

measure without changing the identity of the substance being
observed.
• Aluminum metal is a highly malleable metal; it can withstand large amounts of
stress before it breaks or crumbles.

• The density of an object is a ratio of its mass to its volume.

• Other physical properties include: mass, color, viscosity, hardness, and

temperature.

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The Macroscopic Perspective

Chemical properties are determined only by observing how a

substance changes its identity in chemical reactions.
• Pure aluminum metal reacts with acid, such as in soft drinks, to form an
aluminum salt and hydrogen gas
• 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) -----> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
• The ability of a compound to burn in oxygen, or combustion, is another
chemical property.
• Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O
• The degradation of metals in the presence of air and moisture, or corrosion, is
another common chemical property.
• 4Fe+ 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
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The Macroscopic Perspective

Three phases of matter:

• Solids are hard and do not change their shapes easily at ordinary
temperatures.
• Liquids assume the shape of the portion of the container they fill.
• Gases expand to occupy the entire volume of their containers.

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The Microscopic, or Particulate Perspective

• Matter is composed of unimaginably small particles called atoms that retain the
chemical identity of the element they represent.

• An element is composed of atoms with identical physical and chemical properties.

• Molecules are groups of atoms held together by attractive forces whose properties
are distinguishable from those of the individual elements.

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Periodic Table of the Elements

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The Microscopic Perspective

Solid: particles maintain a regular ordered structure; maintains size and shape.

Liquid: particles remain close but no longer ordered; takes shape of container.

Gas: particles are widely separated and move independently

of one another; fills available volume of container.

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The Microscopic Perspective

•During a physical change, chemical

composition does not change.

•Heating liquid water to make gaseous

water (steam).

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The Microscopic Perspective

•During a chemical change, a

chemical reaction occurs that
changes the chemical
composition of the matter
involved.

•Using electricity to convert water

into oxygen and hydrogen
molecules.

15
Example Problem 1:

PROBLEM: A candle suspended above boiling

water could be used to test a hypothesis about the
chemical composition of the bubbles that rise from
boiling water. What would be observed if the
bubbles were composed of:
a) Water
b) Hydrogen
c) Oxygen

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Example Problem 1:

SOLUTION:
a) Water
If the bubbles coming out of the liquid contain water, we would expect the flame to
diminish in size or be extinguished. Water does not sustain the chemical reaction of
combustion (as oxygen does), so if the bubbles are water, the flame should
not burn as brightly.
b) Hydrogen
You should have been able to find (on the web, for example) that hydrogen tends to burn
explosively. If the bubbles coming out of the water were hydrogen gas, we would expect to
see the flame ignite the gas with some sort of an explosion. (Hopefully, a small one.)
c) Oxygen
If the bubbles were oxygen, the fl ame should burn more brightly. The amount of fuel
would remain the same, but the bubbles would increase the amount of oxygen present
and make the reaction more intense.
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The Symbolic Representation

Element abbreviations are used to

represent:
• pure aluminum, Al
• aluminum oxide, Al2O3

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The Symbolic Representation

Particulate level Particulate level

representation for representation for
aluminum oxide, pure aluminum, Al.
Al2O3, in bauxite.
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Macroscopic, Microscopic, and Symbolic Levels

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The Science of Chemistry: Observations and Models

• Chemistry is an empirical science and is studied by:

• Measuring physical properties and observing chemical

reactions.

• Models are created to explain observations and organize

collected data.

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Observations in Science

Observations are recorded via measurements.

• Accuracy - how close the observed value is to the “true” value.

• Precision - the spread in values obtained from measurements; the

reproducibility of values.

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Observations in Science

Observations are recorded via measurements.

• Accuracy - how close the observed value is to the “true” value.

• Precision - the spread in values obtained from measurements; the reproducibility of values.

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Example Problem 2:

PROBLEM: Suppose a quality control chemist at a pharmaceutical company is tasked with

checking the accuracy and precision of three different machines that are meant to
dispense 10 ounces (296 mL) of cough syrup into storage bottles. She proceeds to use
each machine to fill five bottles and then carefully determines the actual volume
dispensed, obtaining the results tabulated in Table below. Identify whether the results are
accurate and/or precise.

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Example Problem 2:

SOLUTION:

• Dispenser #1 is precise (values all close to one another, within a few tenths of a
milliliter) but not accurate (none of the values are close to the target value of 296 mL,
each being more than 10 mL too low).

• Dispenser #2 represent improved accuracy (each volume is less than 3 mL away from
296 mL) but worse precision (volumes vary by more than 4 mL).

• Dispenser #3 is working well, dispensing cough syrup both accurately (all volumes
within 0.1 mL of the target volume) and precisely (volumes differing from each other by
no more than 0.2 mL).

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Observations in Science

Measurements contain one of two types of errors:

• Random Error - may make a measurement randomly too high or

too low. (e.g., variation associated with equipment limitations)

• Systematic Error - may make a measurement consistently too high

or too low. (e.g., the presence of an impurity)

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Interpreting Observations

Inductive and deductive reasoning are used to interpret

collected data and observations.

• Inductive reasoning - begins with a series of specific observations

and attempts to generalize to a larger, more universal conclusion.

• Deductive reasoning - takes two or more statements or assertions

and combines them so that a clear and irrefutable conclusion can
be drawn.

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Models in Science

•Models refer to a largely empirical description.

• Gas pressure is proportional to temperature.

• Theories are explanations grounded in some more fundamental

principle or assumption about the behavior of a system.
• Relationship between gas pressure and temperature explained
using kinetic energy.

•Laws are sufficiently refined, well tested, and widely accepted

theories.

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Numbers and Measurements in Chemistry

• Units - designate the type of quantity measured.

• Prefixes - provide scale to a base unit.

• Significant Figures - indicate the amount of information

that is reliable when discussing a measurement.

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Units

• The base unit designates the type

of quantity being measured.

• SI units (from French Système

International) are the base units of
science.

• Some units comprise combinations

of these base units and are termed
derived units.
•1 J = 1 kg m2s-2
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Units

• Prefixes are used with base units to report and understand

quantities of any size.
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SI Prefixes

• Prefixes are based on multiples of 10.

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Temperature

• Temperature is measured using the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and

Kelvin (absolute) temperature scales. 33
Temperature Scale Conversions

oF = (1.8 x oC) + 32
oC = ( oF -32)/1.8
K = oC + 273.15
oC = K - 273.15
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Numbers and Significant Figures

• Scientific notation is used to easily write very small and very large
numbers.

• Factor out powers of ten

54,000 = 5.4 x 104

0.000042 = 4.2 x 10-5

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Numbers and Significant Figures

• All digits reported are considered significant except for certain

types of zeros.
• When a zero establishes the decimal place, it is not significant.
• 51,300 m (3 significant figures)
• 0.043 g (2 significant figures)

• A zero is significant when it follows a decimal point or when it occurs

between other significant figures.
• 4.30 mL (3 significant figures)
• 304.2 kg (4 significant figures)
• All numbers are significant when written in correct scientific notation.

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Example Problem 3:

PROBLEM: An alloy contains 2.05% of some impurity. How many

significant figures are reported in this value?

SOLUTION: All digits reported are significant, so there are three

significant figures in the number.

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Numbers and Significant Figures

• For calculated values, the number of significant figures should be

consistent with the data used in the calculation.
• For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in a
result must be the same as the number of significant figures in the
factor with the fewest significant figures.
e.g. 0.24 kg x 4621 m = 1100 kg m or 1.1x 103 kg m

• For addition and subtraction, the number of significant figures are

determined from the position of the first uncertain digit.
e.g. 4.882 m
+ 0.3 m__
5.2 m
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Example Problem 4:

PROBLEM: Report the result for the indicated arithmetic operations

using the correct number of significant figures. Assume all values are
measurements and not exact numbers.

(a) 4.30 × 0.31

(b) 4.033 + 88.1

(c) 5.6/1.732 x 104

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Example Problem 4:

SOLUTION:

(a) 4.30 × 0.31 = 1.3

(b) 4.033 + 88.1 = 92.1

(c) 5.6/1.732 x 104 = 3.2 X 10-4

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Numbers and Significant Figures

• When counting discrete objects, the result has no ambiguity.

Such measurements use exact numbers. They have infinite
significant figures.

e.g. two pennies would be 2.000000…

• Exactly defined terms, such as metric prefixes, are also considered

exact numbers.

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Problem Solving in Chemistry and Engineering

• There are several categories of problems:

• Calculations involving ratios.

• Conceptual understanding of particulate level.

• Visualization of phenomena on different levels.

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Using Ratios

• Ratios represent the relationship between two quantities and can

be expressed two ways:

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Example Problem 5:

PROBLEM: Suppose that your supermarket is offering 20-count

shrimp for $5.99 per pound. How much should you expect to pay for
one dozen shrimp?

SOLUTION:

44
Ratios in Chemistry Calculations

• Mass Density - ratio of an object’s mass to its volume.

• Temperature- and compound-specific.

• Allows conversion between mass and volume.

e.g.

• Units of measurement can be used to determine how to

write the appropriate ratio by “canceling” out; called
dimensional analysis or the factor-label method.
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Example Problem 6:

PROBLEM: What is the wavelength, in meters, of orange light of

wavelength 615 nm?

SOLUTION:

1 m = 1 × 109 nm =

46
Example Problem 7:

PROBLEM: The density of water at 25ºC is 0.997 g per mL. A child’s

swimming pool holds 346 L of water at this temperature. What mass
of water is in the pool?

SOLUTION:

47
Conceptual Chemistry Problems

• Conceptual problems focus on the particulate perspective of

chemistry.

• Depictions of atoms and molecules are used to visualize molecular

phenomena.

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Example Problem 8:

PROBLEM: Draw a picture that shows what carbon dioxide molecules

might look like as a solid and as a gas.

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Example Problem 8:

SOLUTION:

50
Example Problem 9:

PROBLEM: Identify the group and period to which each of the

following elements belongs. Then decide whether the element is a
metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.

a) Se
b) Cs
c) Fe
d) Cu
e) Br

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Example Problem 9:

SOLUTION:

a) Se: Group VIA, Period 4; nonmetal

b) Cs: Group IA, Period 6; metal
c) Fe: Group VIIIB, Period 4; metal
d) Cu: Group IB, Period 4; metal

e) Br: Group VIIA, Period 4; nonmetal

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Chemical Reactions: Equations

• Chemical formulas provide a concise way to represent chemical

compounds.

e.g. Nitroglycerin becomes C3H5N3O9.

• A chemical equation builds upon chemical formulas to concisely

represent a chemical reaction.

53
Writing Chemical Equations

• Chemical equations represent the transformation of one or more

chemical species into new substances.
• Reactants are the original materials and are written on the left
hand side of the equation.

• Products are the newly formed compounds and are written on

the right hand side of the equation.

REACTANTS → PRODUCTS

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Writing Chemical Equations

• Chemical formulas represent reactants and products.

• Phase labels follow each formula.

• solid = (s)
• liquid = (Ɩ)
• gas = (g)
• aqueous (substance dissolved in water) = (aq)

• Some reactions require an additional symbol placed over the

reaction arrow to specify reaction conditions.
• Thermal reactions: heat (Δ)
• Photochemical reactions: light (hν)
55
Writing Chemical Equations

2NaNO3 2NaNO2 + O2

2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

2NaNO3(s) Δ 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

56
Writing Chemical Equations

• Different representations for the reaction between hydrogen and

oxygen to produce water. 57
Balancing Chemical Equations

• The law of conservation of matter: matter is neither created nor

destroyed.

• Chemical reactions must obey the law of conservation of matter.

• The same number of atoms for each element must occur

on both sides of the chemical equation.

• A chemical reaction simply rearranges the atoms into new

compounds.

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Balancing Chemical Equations

• Balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane.

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Balancing Chemical Equations

• Chemical equations may be balanced via inspection, which really

means by trial and error.

• Numbers used to balance chemical equations are called

stoichiometric coefficients.

• The stoichiometric coefficient multiplies the number of atoms of

each element in the formula unit of the compound that it
precedes.

• Stoichiometry refers to the various quantitative relationships between

reactants and products.
60
Balancing Chemical Equations

• Pay attention to the following

when balancing chemical
equations:
• Do not change species
• Do not use fractions
(cannot have half a
molecule)
• Make sure you have the
same number of atoms of
each element on both sides

61
Example Problem 9:

PROBLEM: Write a balanced chemical equation describing the

reaction between propane, C3H8, and oxygen, O2, to form carbon
dioxide and water.

62
Example Problem 9:

SOLUTION:

1)

2)

63
Example Problem 9:

SOLUTION:

3) 4)

5)

64
Mass and Moles of Substance

• Molecular mass (MM) of a substance is the sum of the atomic

masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance.
• Average mass of a molecule of that substance, expressed in atomic mass
units.

• Formula mass (FM) of a substance is the sum of the atomic

masses of all atoms in a formula unit of the compound, whether
molecular or not.

65
Example Problem 10:

PROBLEM: Calculate the formula mass of each of the following to

three significant figures, using a table of atomic masses (AM):
a. chloroform, CHCl3; b. iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3.

66
Example Problem 10:

SOLUTION:

a. chloroform, CHCl3

b. b. iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3.

67
Example Problem 11:

PROBLEM: For the following two compounds, write the molecular

formula and calculate the formula mass to four significant figures:

68
Example Problem 11:

SOLUTION:
a) This molecular model is of a molecule that is composed of two O and two H
atoms. For inorganic compounds, the elements in a chemical formula are written
in order such that the most metallic element is listed first. (Even though H is not
metallic, it is positioned in the periodic table in such a way that it is considered to
be a metal when writing formulas.) Hence, the chemical formula is H2O2 and
formula mass yields 34.02 amu.

b) This molecular model represents a molecule made up of one N atom, three O

atoms, and one H atom. The chemical formula is then HNO3. The formula mass is
63.01 amu.

69
Mole and Molar Mass

• A mole (symbol mol) is defined as the quantity of a given substance

that contains as many molecules or formula units as the number of
atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C (carbon-12).

• e.g . One mole of ethanol contains the same number of ethanol

molecules as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.

• 1 mole contains Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023 particles/mole)

of particles.

• The mass of 6.022 x 1023 atoms of any element is the molar mass
of that element.
70
Mole and Molar Mass

• A mole (symbol mol) is defined as the quantity of a given substance

that contains as many molecules or formula units as the number of
atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C (carbon-12).
• e.g . One mole of ethanol contains the same number of ethanol
molecules as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.

• 1 mole contains Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023 particles/mole) of

particles.
• The mass of 6.022 x 1023 atoms of any element is the molar mass of
that element.
• e.g. A mole of oxygen molecules (formula O2) contains
6.02 x 1023 O2 molecules—that is, 2 x 6.02 x 1023 O atoms.

71
Mole and Molar Mass

• A mole (symbol mol) is defined as the quantity of a given substance

that contains as many molecules or formula units as the number of
atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C (carbon-12).
• e.g . One mole of ethanol contains the same number of ethanol
molecules as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.

• 1 mole contains Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023 particles/mole) of

particles.
• The mass of 6.022 x 1023 atoms of any element is the molar mass of
that element.
• e.g. A mole of oxygen molecules (formula O2) contains
6.02 x 1023 O2 molecules—that is, 2 x 6.02 x 1023 O atoms.

72
Mole and Molar Mass

• One mole samples of various elements. All have the same number of
particles.
73
Mole and Molar Mass

• The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of all
the atoms in a compound.

æ 1.0 g H ö æ 16.0 g ö
ç 2 mol H ´ ÷ + ç 1 mol O ´ ÷
è 1 mol H ø è 1 mol O ø

= 18.0 g/mol H 2 O

74
Determining Molar Mass

• Balanced chemical reactions also provide mole ratios between

reactants and products.

2H 2 (g) + O2 (g) ¾¾
® 2H 2O(g)

• 2 moles H2 : 1 mole O2 : 2 moles H2O

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Example Problem 12:

PROBLEM: Determine the molar mass of each of the following compounds,

all of which have been used as explosives:

a) lead azide, PbN6

b) nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9

c) Mercury fulminate, Hg(ONC)2

76
Example Problem 12:

SOLUTION:

a) lead azide, PbN6

b) nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9

77
Example Problem 12:

SOLUTION:

c) Mercury fulminate, Hg(ONC)2

78
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Mass

• Molar mass allows conversion from mass to number of moles, much

like a unit conversion.
• 1 mol C7H5N3O6 = 227.133 g C7H5N3O6

1 mol C 7 H 5 N 3O 6
300.0 g C 7 H 5 N 3O6 ´
227.133 g C 7 H 5 N 3O 6

= 1.320 mol C 7 H 5 N 3O 6

79
Calculations Using Moles and Molar Mass

• Avogadro’s number functions much like a unit conversion between

moles to number of particles.
• 1 mol C7H5N3O6 = 6.022 × 1023 C7H5N3O6 molecules

• How many molecules are in 1.320 moles of nitroglycerin?

6.022 ´ 10 23 molecules C 7 H 5 N 3O6

1.320 mol C 7 H 5 N 3O6 ´
1 mol C 7 H 5 N 3O 6

= 7.949 ´ 10 23 molecules C 7 H 5 N 3O 6

80
Example Problem 13:

PROBLEM: A sample of the explosive TNT (C7H5N3O6) has a mass of 650.5 g.

•How many moles of TNT are in this sample?

•How many molecules is this?

81
Example Problem 13:

SOLUTION:

82
Example Problem 14:

PROBLEM: A demolition engineer is planning to use the explosive

ethylenedinitramine (C2H6N4O4, also known as halite) to bring down an
abandoned building. Calculations show that 315 moles of the compound
will provide the necessary explosive force. How many pounds of C2H6N4O4
should be used?

83
Example Problem 14:

SOLUTION:

84
Determining Chemical Formulas

Elemental Analysis: Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• Empirical formulas can be determined from an elemental analysis.

• An elemental analysis measures the mass percentage of each element in a
compound.

• The formula describes the composition in terms of the number of atoms of

each element.

• The molar masses of the elements provide the connection between the
elemental analysis and the formula.

85
Elemental Analysis: Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• Assume a 100 gram sample size

• Percentage element × sample size = mass element in compound.

(e.g., 16% carbon = 16 g carbon)

• Convert mass of each element to moles using the molar mass.

• Divide by smallest number of moles to get mole to mole ratio for empirical
formula.

• When division by smallest number of moles results in small rational fractions,

multiply all ratios by an appropriate integer to give whole numbers.

• 2.5 × 2 = 5, 1.33 × 3 = 4, etc.

86
Example Problem 15:

PROBLEM: The explosive known as RDX contains 16.22% carbon, 2.72%

hydrogen, 37.84% nitrogen, and 43.22% oxygen by mass. Determine the
empirical formula of the compound.

87
Example Problem 15:

SOLUTION:

88
Example Problem 15:

SOLUTION:

Empirical formula: CH2N2O2

89
Elemental Analysis: Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• A molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the empirical

formula.

• Molar mass for the molecular formula is a whole number

multiple of the molar mass for the empirical formula.

• If the empirical formula of a compound is CH2 and its molar mass

is 42 g/mol, what is its molecular formula?

90
Example Problem 16:

PROBLEM: An alloy contains 70.8 mol % palladium and 29.2 mol % nickel.
Express the composition of this alloy as weight percentage (wt %).

91
Example Problem 16:

SOLUTION:

92
Molarity

• Molarity, or molar concentration, M, is the number of moles of

solute per liter of solution.

• Provides relationship among molarity, moles solute, and liters

solution.

moles of solute
Molarity (M ) =
liter of solution
• If we know any two of these quantities, we can determine the
third.

93
Example Problem 17:

PROBLEM: A solution is prepared by dissolving 45.0 g of NaClO in enough

water to produce exactly 750 mL of solution. What is the molarity of this
solution?

94
Example Problem 17:

SOLUTION:

95
Dilution

• Dilution is the process in which solvent is added to a solution to

decrease the concentration of the solution.

• The number of moles of solute is the same before and after dilution.

• Since the number of moles of solute equals the product of molarity

and volume (M × V), we can write the following equation, where the
subscripts denote initial and final values.

M i ´ Vi = M f ´ Vf
96
Example Problem 18:

PROBLEM: A chemist requires 1.5 M hydrochloric acid, HCl, for a series of

reactions. The only solution available is 6.0 M HCl. What volume of 6.0 M
HCl must be diluted to obtain 5.0 L of 1.5 M HCl?

97
Example Problem 18:

SOLUTION:

To obtain the desired quantity of diluted HCl, the chemist should begin with 1.3 L of the
concentrated solution and add enough water to bring the volume up to 5.0 L.

98
Stoichiometry

• Stoichiometry is a term used to describe quantitative relationships

in chemistry.

• “How much?” of a product is produced or reactant is consumed.

• A balanced chemical equation is needed.

• Conversion between mass or volume to number of moles frequently

needed.

99
Ratios from a Balanced Chemical Equation

• Mole ratios are obtained from the coefficients in the balanced chemical reaction.

• 1 mol CH4 : 2 mol O2 : 1 mol CO2 : 2 mol H2O

• These ratios can be used in solving problems:

1 mol CH 4 2 mol H 2 O
or
2 mol O 2 1 mol CH 4
100
Example Problem 19:

PROBLEM: In the combustion of methane, how many moles of O2 are

required if 6.75 mol of CH4 is to be completely consumed?

101
Example Problem 19:

SOLUTION:

102
Ratios from a Balanced Chemical Equation

• This flow diagram illustrates the various steps involved in solving a typical
reaction stoichiometry problem.

• No different than unit conversion

• Usually more than one conversion is necessary

• Write all quantities with their complete units

103
Example Problem 20:

PROBLEM: How many grams of water can be produced if sufficient

hydrogen reacts with 26.0 g of oxygen?

SOLUTION:

104
Ratios from a Balanced Chemical Equation

• Solution to Problem 20 using the stoichiometry problem flow diagram.

105
Example Problem 21:

PROBLEM: If we have 153 g of S8 and an excess of phosphorus, what mass

of P4S3 can be produced in the reaction shown?

8P4 + 3S8 ® 8P4 S3

SOLUTION: Molar mass of S8 is 256.6 g/mol

Molar mass of P4S3 is 220.1 g/mol

106
Limiting Reactants

• In many chemical reactions, one reactant is often exhausted before the

other reactants. This reactant is the limiting reactant.

• Limiting reactant is determined using stoichiometry.

• The limiting reactant limits the quantity of product produced.

107
Limiting Reactants

• In many chemical reactions, one reactant is often exhausted before the

other reactants. This reactant is the limiting reactant.

• Limiting reactant is determined using stoichiometry.

• The limiting reactant limits the quantity of product produced.

108
Limiting Reactants

• Reaction between 6 H2 and

2H 2 (g) + O2 (g) ¾¾
® 2H 2O(g) 6 O2 will produce 6 H2O.

• 6 H2 can produce 6 H2O.

• 6 O2 can produce 12 H2O.

• H2 is limiting reactant.

• 3 O2 left over.

109
Limiting Reactants

• In many cases, we manipulate the amounts of reactants to ensure that

one specific compound is the limiting reactant.

• For example, a more expensive or scarce reagent is usually chosen to

be the limiting reagent.

• Other times, it is best to have a stoichiometric mixture (equal ratio of

moles) to prevent waste.

• For example, rocket fuel is designed so that no mass is left over, which
would add unnecessary weight to the rocket.

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Example Problem 22:

PROBLEM: A solution of hydrochloric acid contains 5.22 g of HCl.

When it is allowed to react with 3.25 g of solid K2CO3, the products are
KCl, CO2, and H2O. Which reactant is in excess?

SOLUTION:

So the given quantity of HCl (5.22 g) requires 9.89 g K2CO3, but we have only 3.25 g of K2CO3
available. The reaction will stop once all of the K2CO3 is consumed. K2CO3 is the limiting reactant,
and HCl is in excess.
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Example Problem 23:

PROBLEM: If 28.2 g of P4 is allowed to react with 18.3 g of S8, which is

the limiting reactant?

8P4 + 3S8 ® 8P4 S3

SOLUTION:

So, 28.2 g of P4 requires 21.9 g of S8 to react completely. We have only 18.3 g of S8, so
there is not enough S8 to react with all of the P4. Therefore, S8 is the limiting reactant.

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Example Problem 24:

PROBLEM: If 45.0 kg of methanol is allowed to react with 70.0 kg of

isobutene, what is the maximum mass (theoretical yield) of MTBE that
can be obtained?

CH 3OH + (CH 3 )2 C=CH 2 ® (CH 3 )3 COCH 3

Methanol I sobutene M TBE

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Example Problem 24:

SOLUTION:

114
Example Problem 25:

PROBLEM: The solid fuel rockets of the space shuttle are based on the
following reaction between ammonium perchlorate and aluminum:

3NH 4 ClO4 (s) + 3Al(s) ® Al2O3 (s) + AlCl3 (g) + 3NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

If either reactant is in excess, unnecessary mass will be added to the

shuttle, so a stoichiometric mixture is desired. What mass of each reactant
should be used for every kilogram of the fuel mixture?

115
Example Problem 25:

SOLUTION:

116
Example Problem 25:

SOLUTION:

So each kilogram of fuel should comprise 186.8 g Al and 813.2 g NH4ClO4.

117
Theoretical Yield

• The maximum mass of a product that can be obtained in a reaction is

determined by the limiting reactant.

• Determine which reactant is the limiting reactant.

• Calculate the mass of product that can be made from the limiting
reactant. This mass is the theoretical yield.

• In stoichiometric mixtures, however, both reactants are consumed

completely, so either could be considered the limiting reactant.

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Theoretical and Percent Yields

• Many factors determine the amount of desired product actually produced

in a reaction.

• Temperature of the reaction

• The possibility of side reactions

• Further reaction of the product

• Time

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Solution Stoichiometry

• Reaction efficiency is measured with percentage yield.

• The mass of product obtained is the actual yield.

• The ideal mass of product obtained from calculation is the

theoretical yield.

æ actual yield ö
Percentage Yield = ç ÷ ´ 100%
è theoretical yield ø

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Example Problem 26:

PROBLEM: In a laboratory experiment, a student heats 42.0 g of

NaHCO3 and determines that 22.3 g of Na2CO3 is formed. What is the
percentage yield of this reaction?

2NaHCO3 (s) ¾heat

¾® Na 2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O(g)

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Example Problem 26:

SOLUTION:
2NaHCO3 (s) ¾heat
¾® Na 2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O(g)

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Solution Stoichiometry

• For reactions occurring in solution, the concentration and volume of

reactants and products are often used instead of mass to solve solution
stoichiometry problems.

• n = number of moles; M = mol/L; V = L

123
Example Problem 27:

PROBLEM: If 750.0 mL of 0.806 M NaClO is mixed with excess

ammonia, how many moles of hydrazine can be formed?

NaClO(aq) + 2NH 3 (aq) ® N 2 H 4 (aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O( )

If the final volume of the resulting solution is 1.25 L, what will be the
molarity of hydrazine?

124
Example Problem 27:

SOLUTION:
NaClO(aq) + 2NH 3 (aq) ® N 2 H 4 (aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O( )

125
Solution Stoichiometry

• A titration is a common laboratory technique that uses solution

stoichiometry.

• A solution-phase reaction is carried out under controlled conditions so

that the amount of one reactant can be determined with high
precision.

• An indicator is a dye added to a titration to indicate when the reaction

is complete.

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Solution Stoichiometry

1. A solution of one of the reactants (A) is added to a burette.

2. The burette is positioned above a flask containing the second reactant (B).
3. The burette is used to add A to the flask in a controlled manner; volume is determined
from initial and final burette readings.
4. The reaction is complete when the indicator changes color.

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Example Problem 28:

PROBLEM: If 24.75 mL of 0.503 M NaOH solution is used to titrate a

15.00-mL sample of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, what is the concentration of
the acid?

128
Example Problem 28:

SOLUTION:

129
REFERENCES
PRIMARY REFERENCE
L. S. Brown & T. A. Holme. Chemistry for Engineering Students.

OTHER REFERENCES

D.D. Ebing & S.D. Gammon. General Chemistry.

W.L. Masterton & C. N. Hurley. Chemistry :Principles and Reactions.

M.S. Silberberg. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change.

T.L. Brown, et. al. Chemistry: T h e C e n t r a l S c i e n c e.

M. S. Silberberg. Principles of General Chemistry.

R. Chang. Chemistry.

OpenStax College. (2015). Chemistry.

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