Photosynthesis & Respiration

All biological organisms require energy to

survive. Scientists use the term bioenergetics to
describe the concept of energy flow through living
systems, such as cells.

Cellular processes such as the building and

breaking down of complex molecules occur
through stepwise chemical reactions. Some of
these chemical reactions are spontaneous and
release energy, whereas others require energy to
proceed. Just as living things must continually
consume food to replenish their energy supplies,
cells must continually produce more energy to
replenish that used by the many energy-requiring
chemical reactions that constantly take place.

Together, all the chemical reactions that take place

inside cells, including those that consume or
generate energy, are referred to as the cell’s At the level of the overall reactions,
metabolism. photosynthesis and cellular respiration are near-
opposite processes. They differ only in the form of
Plants and animals acquire and use energy energy absorbed or released, as shown in the
through two processes: diagram above.
Photosynthesis (which takes place in the
At the level of individual steps, photosynthesis
chloroplast) and respiration (which takes isn't just cellular respiration run in reverse.
place in the mitochondria). Instead, as, photosynthesis takes place in its own
unique series of steps. However, there are some
notable similarities between photosynthesis and
cellular respiration.

Similarities between Photosynthesis and Cellular

Respiration:
- Both involve a series of redox reactions
(reactions involving electron transfers).
- In cellular respiration, electrons flow
from glucose to oxygen, forming water
and releasing energy.
- In photosynthesis, they go in the opposite
direction, starting in water and winding
up in glucose—an energy-requiring
process powered by light.
- Like cellular respiration, photosynthesis
also uses an electron transport chain to
make a H+ concentration gradient, which
drives ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis.

ENERGY
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work Energy Transformation in Photosynthesis and
or supply heat. Respiration:
Photosynthesis – light energy transformed
Energy can be potential energy or kinetic into chemical energy.
energy: Cellular Respiration – chemical energy
Potential energy is stored energy. transformed into new molecules (ATP),
option, and heat energy.
Kinetic energy is active motion.
Examples of kinetic energy include thermal
energy, mechanical or sound energy.
- Molecular motion is dependent on
temperature (low temperature results in
slower motion; higher temperature
results in higher motion).

The Laws of Thermodynamics:

(The laws of thermodynamics are important
unifying principles of biology. These principles During photosynthesis:
govern the chemical processes in all biological - light energy from the sun
organisms). - is transformed into chemical energy stored
in the bonds of glucose.
[On a chemical level, the bonds that hold the
atoms of molecular together have potential energy.
During cellular respiration:
This type of potential energy is called chemical
energy – and can be used to do work] - the energy in the bonds of glucose is
released and
Glucose (C6H12O6) is a common example of the - is transformed into new molecules (ATP),
monosaccharides used for energy production. motion and heat energy.

1st Law – Energy cannot be created or Energy Transformation: ENTROPY:

destroyed but only transferred and (As with other biological processes, the transfer
transformed. of energy is not 100 % efficient. In photosynthesis
2nd Law – Reactions processed to maximize – not all the light energy is absorbed by the
entropy and minimize potential energy. plant).

First Law of Thermodynamics - Some energy is reflected, and some is lost

- Energy changes from one form to another. as heat.
- The loss of energy to the surrounding
environment results in an increase of
disorder or entropy.

ENTROPY is a thermodynamic function of

the state of the system which can be
interpreted as the amount of order or disorder
of a system.
Entropy – more order, less entropy, high
potential energy

Second Law of Thermodynamics

What determines if a reaction will require or
produce energy?
- The reaction will be spontaneous if the
potential energy of the products is lower Respiration overall is exothermic, but some of
than that of the reactants. the reactions are endothermic (require
- Reaction will be spontaneous if the energy).
resultant products are less ordered than
the reactants (entropy increases). Photosynthesis overall is endothermic, but
some of the reactions are exothermic (release
(Although living organisms appear to reduce entropy, energy).
by assembling small molecules into polymers and
higher order structures, this work releases waste heat
that increases the entropy of the environment. Entropy -
more order,
less entropy,
Cells, for example, are highly ordered and have low high potential
energy.
entropy. In the process of maintaining this order, some
Kinetic
energy is lost to the surroundings or transformed. So, Potential
Energy -
Energy -
while cells are ordered, the processes performed to STired.
active
motion.
maintain that order result in an increase in entropy in
the cell's/organism's surroundings. The transfer of
energy causes entropy in the universe to increase.) Energy

Can be Can be
transformed transferred
NOT but NOT
destroyed. created.

Exothermic
vs
Endothermic.

Entropy - more
order, less
entropy, high
potential energy.

6 Carbon Substrate in
Molecule. RESPIRATION.

Inside the cell, each sugar molecule is broken

down through a complex series of chemical Glucose
reactions. As chemical energy is released from the
bonds in the monosaccharide, it is harnessed to
Produce during Glucose is
synthesize high-energy adenosine triphosphate photosynthesis oxidized in this
by plants or reaction (it
(ATP) molecules. consumed by losses
animals. electrons).

ATP is the primary energy currency of all cells.

1 glucose
produces
approx. 30 ATP.
First let's consider the combustion of sugar (or
respiration). Glucose reacts with molecular
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
The carbon atoms in glucose are oxidized. That is,
they lose electron and go to a higher oxidation
state.

EXOTHERMIC reactions are spontaneous

and release energy.
ENDOTHERMIC reactions are non-
spontaneous and require an input of energy to
proceed.
ATP, Enzymes and REDOX Reactions
ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main
Why Do Cells Need Energy? structures:
- Driving energetically unfavorable (less - The nitrogenous base (adenine)
entropy reactions to proceed) reactions. - The sugar (ribose)
- The need for electron and energy transfer. - A chain of three phosphate groups bound
to ribose.
The energy released from the breakdown of
the chemical bonds within nutrients can be The phosphate tail of ATP is the actual
stored either through the reduction of electron power source which the cell taps. Available
carriers or in the bonds of adenosine energy is contained in the bonds between the
triphosphate (ATP). phosphates and is released when they are
broken, which occurs through the addition of
Metabolism is the term used to describe all a water molecular (HYDROLYSIS).
the chemical reactions inside a cell. Cellular
processes such as the building or breaking Usually, the outer phosphate is removed from
down of complex molecules occur through ATP to yield energy; when this occurs, ATP is
series of stepwise, interconnected chemical converted to ADP, the form of the nucleotide
reactions called metabolic pathways. having only two phosphates.

Reactions that are spontaneous and release

energy are exothermic reactions, whereas
endothermic reactions require energy to
proceed.

The following reactions are governed by the

laws of thermodynamics:

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

- ATP energy is the currency of the cell.
- A living cell must be able to handle the - Phosphoanydride bonds are considered
energy released during catabolism in a high-energy. This means that an
way that enables the cell to store energy appreciable amount of energy is released
safely and release it for use only as when one of the bonds are broken in a
needed. hydrolysis reaction.
- Living cells accomplish this by using ATP. - The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is
- ATP has potential energy stored in its reversible.
molecular structure. - The reverse reaction (generates ATP from
- When actively involved in reactions, this ADP and Pi) requires energy.
potential energy is converted into kinetic - Regeneration of ATP is important because
energy altering the chemical bonding of cells tend to use up (hydrolyze) ATP
other molecules. molecules very quickly and rely on the
- IT IS NOT A STORAGE MOLECULE replacement ATP being constantly
FOR CHEMICAL ENERGY. produced.
- 1st law of thermodynamics
These acid anhydride bonds of ATP are made: through an electron transport chain during
1. By the light reactions of photosynthesis.
photosynthesis
2. Respiration Photophosphorylation is the conversion of
ADP to ATP using the energy of sunlight by
ATP can power cellular processes by activation of PSII. This involved the splitting
transferring a phosphate group to another of the water molecule in oxygen and
molecule (a process called phosphorylation). hydrogen (H+) – Photolysis.
- This transfer is carried out by special
enzymes that couple the release of energy Phosphorylation is accomplished by:
from ATP to cellular activities that require - Substrate phosphorylation
energy. - Oxidative phosphorylation: via electron
transport and ATPsynthase (enzyme)
Adding a phosphate group to a molecule, a - Respiration and photosynthesis
process called phosphorylation, requires
energy. Phosphate groups are negatively
charged and thus repel one another when they
are arranged in series, as they are in ADP and
ATP. This repulsion makes the ADP and ATP
molecules inherently unstable. Thus, the
bonds between phosphate groups (one in ADP
and two in ATP) are called high-energy
phosphate bonds.

When these high-energy bonds are broken to

release one phosphate (called inorganic The main difference between substrate level
phosphate [Pi]) or two connected phosphate phosphorylation and oxidative
groups (called pyrophosphate [PPi]) from ATP phosphorylation:
through a process called dephosphorylation, - Substrate level phosphorylation is a direct
energy is released to drive endergonic phosphorylation of ADP with a phosphate
reactions. group by using the energy obtained from a
coupled reaction.
This is an example of energy coupling and is - Oxidative phosphorylation is the
the basis for cellular metabolism: catabolic production of ATP from the oxidized
reactions produce the energy required to drive NADH and FADH .
anabolic reactions.
The Electron Transport Chain:
The energy released from dephosphorylation
of ATP is used to drive cellular work, The electron transport chain is a series of
including anabolic pathways. ATP is proteins and organic molecules found in the
regenerated through phosphorylation, inner membrane of the mitochondria.
harnessing the energy found in chemicals or
from sunlight. - Electrons are passed from one member of
the transport chain to another in a series of
PHOSPHORYLATION  the addition of a redox reactions.
phosphate group to a molecule. - Energy released in these reactions is
- Unbound or from another molecule. captured as a proton gradient, which is
DE-PHOSPHORYLATION  the loss of a then used to make ATP in a process called
phosphate group. chemiosmosis.
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION  Together, the electron transport chain and
production of ATP molecules using the energy chemiosmosis make up oxidative
released as light-excited electrons flow phosphorylation.
 The transfer of energy in the form of electrons
S U B S T RAT E allows the cell to transfer and use energy
P H O S P H O R Y LAT I O N incrementally; that is, in small packages
rather than a single, destructive burst.
Substrate – a specific molecule which is the
reactant for a specific metabolic reaction. Reactions that remove electrons from donor
Phosphorylation – transfer of a phosphate molecules, leaving them oxidized, are
group from one molecule to another OR oxidation reactions; those that add electrons to
attachment of unbound inorganic phosphate acceptor molecules, leaving them reduced, are
(Pi) to a molecule. reduction reactions.
Substrate Level Phosphorylation – group - Because electrons can move from one
added to ADP directly during an enzymatic molecule to another, oxidation and
reaction: reduction occur in tandem.
- These pairs of reactions are called
Phosphoenolpyruvate + ADP  pyruvate + ATP oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox
reactions.
(Above is a reaction in glycolysis)
ENZYMES
- Proteins (large molecules)
- Binding site for substrates
- Bring substrates into correct orientation.
Substrate
phosphorylation;
Potential energy
oidative
stored in its
phosphorylation -
molecular
electron transports
structure.
and ATPsynthase
(enzyme)

ATP
(Adenosine
Triphosphate)
Related
compounds power
Proteins called enzymes serve as catalysts for
some biosynthetic
pathways: biochemical reactions inside cells:
GTP (guanosine
triphosphate)
ATP --> ADP + Pi - An enzyme functions by lowering the
UTP (uridine
triphosphate) activation energy of a chemical reaction
CTP (cytidine
triphosphate) inside the cell.
1 Glucose
produces approx. - Activation energy is the energy needed to
30 ATP
form or break chemical bonds and convert
reactants to products.

Some reactions involve the transfer of The chemical reactants to which an enzyme
electrons  these are called redox reactions. binds are called SUBSTRATES, and the
- Atom that loses electron(s) is oxidized location within the enzyme where the
(LEO/OIL). substrate binds is called the ENZYME’s
- Atom that gains electron(s) is reduced ACTIVE SITE.
(GER/RIG).
The characteristics of the amino acids near
the active site create a very specific chemical
environment within the active site that
induces suitability to binding, albeit briefly,
to a specific substrate (or substrates). Due to
this specific ‘puzzle-like’ match between
The transfer of electrons between molecules is
enzymes and their substrates enzymes are
important because most of the energy stored
known for their specificity.
in atoms and used to fuel cell functions is in
the form of high-energy electrons.
 - This is the + indicated in the designation
EXCHANGE OF ELECTRONS NAD+.
ELECTRON CARRIERS [This is often confusing, because the molecule
is negatively charged due to the presence of
The energy released from the breakdown of the phosphate groups.]
the chemical bonds within nutrients can be - One electron is transferred to the
stored either through the reduction of electron positively charged nitrogen of the
carriers or in the bonds of adenosine nicotinamide ring of NAD+.
triphosphate (ATP). - A second electron is transferred to the C4
carbon atom opposite this nitrogen.
In living systems, a small class of compounds
functions as mobile electron carriers, Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
molecules that bind to and shuttle high-energy Phosphate:
electrons between compounds in pathways.

The principal electron carriers we will

consider originate from the B vitamin group
and are derivatives of nucleotides; they are
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotine
adenine dinucleotide phosphate, and flavin
adenine dinucleotide. These compounds can
be easily reduced or oxidized.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Nicotine adenine dinucleotide phosphate

(NAD+/NADH) is the most common mobile (NADP+), the oxidized form of an NAD+
electron carrier used in catabolism: variant that contains an extra phosphate
- NAD+ is the oxidized form of the group, is another important electron carrier; it
molecule. forms NADPH when reduced.
- NADH is the reduced form of the
molecule. The oxidized form of flavin adenine
dinucleotide is FAD, and its reduced form is
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide: FADH2.
- A coenzyme,
- that functions to carry electrons from one - Both NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2 are
reaction to another. extensively used in energy extraction from
- Usually associated with respiration & sugars during catabolism in
- the production of ATP. chemoheterotrophs,
- Whereas NADP+/NADPH plays an
important role in anabolic reactions and
photosynthesis.
- Collectively, FADH2, NADH, and
NADPH are often referred to as having
reducing power due to their ability to
donate electrons to various chemical
reactions.

In the case of NAD+:

- the nicotinamide ring has a positive
charge on its nitrogen atom.
 Substrate
phosphorylation,
oxidative Fundamental steps in the evolution of our
phosphorylation-
electron transport planet were the development of
and ATPsynthase
(enzyme) photosynthesis in eukaryotes through the
process of endosymbiosis.

This crucial step forward occurred about 1.6

REDOX billion years ago when a single-celled protist
REACTIONS
captured and retained a formerly free-living
cyanobacterium.
Atom that Atoms that
loses gains
electron(s) is electron(s) is
oxidized. LEO reduced. GER How does it all fit in? – The Origin of
Life:
Membranes defined the first cells – a cell is a
highly organized compartment surrounded by
a thin, flexible membrane (plasma or cell
membrane) and that contains concentrated
chemicals in an aqueous solution (cytoplasm).

First Cells:
- Prokaryotes
- NO nucleus: genetic material localized in
a region of the cytoplasm (nucleoid) and
- Is NOT surrounded by a nuclear
membrane.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(Origin of Life)
Eukaryotic Cells formed by Endosymbiosis:
Formation of Earth:
Internal membranes create separate regions
Earth condensed 4.6 billion years ago (H 2
atmosphere (hydrogen gas)) within the cell in which chemicals are
Gases formed (H2S, NH3, CH4, H2O = reducing concentrated and different processes take
atmosphere) place.
- NH3 splits to form N2 and H2.
- H2O and CH4 forms CO and CO2 + H2. ENDOSYMBIOSIS
- Add electricity/lightning = organic
molecules.
- Add heat = molecules polymerize =
simple membrane.
- First cell with genetic inheritance? – 3.6
billion years ago.
- Photosynthesizing bacteria – 3.4 billion
years ago.

Origin of Photosynthesis in Eukaryotic

Organisms:

Structure and Function of the Cell or Plasma

Membrane:
Photosynthesis = O2
O2 + UV = Ozone – O3
O3 protects from UV radiation = terrestrial life
possible.
 ORGANELLES
Ribosomes have NO membrane; hence
ribosomes are NOT organelles.

Single Membraned Organelles:

- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Double Membraned Organelles:

- Nucleus
- Mitochondrion QUESTION  Why is photosynthesis
- Chloroplast considered to be amongst the most important
events in the history of the Earth?
Advantages of Organelles: Important Aspects to Answer Question:
o Compartmentalization of chemical - The origin of oxygenic photosynthesis
reactions was the most important metabolic
o Incompatible reactions separated (e.g., innovation in Earth history.
synthesis in one organelle; - It allowed life to generate energy and
degradation/recycling in another) reducing power directly from sunlight and
o Efficiency chemical reactions water, freeing it from the limited resources
increased: of geochemically derived reductants.
- Substrates for reactions can be - This greatly increased global primary
concentrated in organelles. productivity and restructured ecosystems.
- Enzymes concentrated on - The release of O2 as a product of water
membranes of organelles. oxidation led to the rise of oxygen, which
- Clustering increases speed of dramatically altered the redox state of
biochemical processes. Earth’s atmosphere and oceans and
permanently changed all major
The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis biogeochemical cycles.
played a role in the dramatic atmosphere - Furthermore, the biological availability of
change with the accumulation of oxygen O2 allowed for the evolution of aerobic
known as the Great Oxygenation Event. respiration and novel biosynthetic
- Somewhere between 2.4 and 2.2 billion pathways, facilitating much of the
years ago, oxygen levels grew to richness we associate with modern
appreciable amounts: biology, including complex
multicellularity.

Why do you need to know about photosynthesis?

If we can understand the photosynthetic process, we
can learn how to increase crop yields of food, fiber,
wood, medicine, and fuel.
NB: elevated CO2 and global climate change.
Photosynthesis Chemical Reaction: (Note: the water is split to release oxygen; its
6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + hydrogen becomes part of the glucose; the
6H2O carbon dioxide re-forms to include the
hydrogen and make glucose).
Requirements for photosynthesis:
1 CO2 Photosynthesis can be described as two sets of
2 H2O reactions, namely:
3 Light Energy 1. Light Reactions
4 Chloroplasts and Pigments 2. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin
Cycle)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS is an endothermic
suite of reactions that reduces carbon dioxide Light Reactions:
to glucose or other sugars. - ATP
- NADPH
- Produce oxygen from splitting water.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - Light dependent
(Chloroplasts & Pigments) - Triggered by light – why?
- Light is captured and electrons that are
released when water is split are promoted
to a high energy state.

Light-independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle):

- Requires the products of the light
reactions and CO2 to produce sugar.
- Depends on ATP and NADPH from light
reactions.
- Light not required.
Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
AUTOTROPHS  make energy-containing
organic molecules from inorganic raw
material by using basic-energy sources such
as sunlight.
HETEROTROPHS  cannot synthesize their
own food and rely on other organisms (both
plants and animals) for nutrition.

Not all autotrophs produce oxygen when

photosynthesizing. An example is purple
Sulphur bacteria:
- Manufacture their own carbohydrates,
Where does this take place?
carbon dioxide, sunlight and hydrogen
Chloroplasts.
sulphide.
- Produce carbohydrate, elemental sulphur
and water – no oxygen.
- This tells us the oxygen in plant
photosynthesis is NOT from carbon
dioxide. (So then where does it come
from?)
 ORIGIN OF CHLOROPLAST
Theory involves that a eukaryote already with
a primitive mitochondrion ingested primitive
photosynthetic bacteria. Photosynthetic
bacteria lost unnecessary functions to become
chloroplasts. rRNA from chloroplasts shows
the closet match to cyanobacteria.

PIGMENTS
Pigments are chemical compounds that can
only absorb certain wavelengths of light.
- Other wavelengths are reflected or
transmitted.
- More important is the ability of pigments
to absorb certain wavelengths.

The most important pigment in the

chloroplast is chlorophyll. Chlorophyll
reflects or transmits green light (green plants,
green algae, blue green algae/cyanobacteria).

CHLOROPLASTS

Chlorophyll and Light:

- Light is a type of electromagnetic
- The green colour of a leaf comes from radiation (a form of energy).
chlorophyll, a pigment found inside - It is characterized by its wavelengths and
chloroplasts. The pigment is not green. exists as packets of photons.
- Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double - Visible light (400 – 700 nm)
membrane. - Each wavelength of light has a
- The dense fluid within is called the characteristic amount of energy.
stroma. - Shorter wavelengths contain more energy
- Thylakoids are interconnected membrane than longer wavelengths.
sacs. - Blue light and ultraviolet light has more
- The thylakoids contain high energy than infrared light and red light.
concentrations of pigments.
- A stack of thylakoids = granum (pl. grana)
 How do we find out which wavelengths ae
important for photosynthesis?
- Full spectrum of colors (different
wavelengths)
- Use a plant or algae and an oxygen loving
bacterium.
- The bacteria will aggregate where the
oxygen is being produced.
- Oxygen will be produced at the relevant
wavelengths.

Chlorophyll a vs Chlorophyll b
These two different chlorophyll molecules are PHOTOSYNTHESIS
characterized by: (Reaction centers, Antenna Complex and
- Their varying chemical structure Photosystems of the Light Reactions)
- Specific infrared light that they absorb.

Differences:
- Chlorophyll a and b differ in structure
only at the third carbon position.
- Chlorophyll b has an aldehyde (-CHO)
side chain at this carbon position,
- As compared to the methyl group (-CH3)
for chlorophyll a.

This difference in structure contributes to

their varying light absorption properties.
- The pigment has absorbed a photon with
the right amount of energy and this is
transferred to the electron – so the
electrons become excited.
- Sometimes the energy is immediately
released as heat and the rest is released as
electromagnetic radiation – light.
- FLUORESCENCE.

Players in Light Reactions:

- Photosystem II (PSII) and Photosystem I
(PSI)
Antenna complex, reaction centre and
proteins.
- Electron transport chain (This process is the same for PSII and PSI –
- ATP synthase what differs is what happens to the electrons
primary electron acceptor).
What are Photosystems?
Photosystems are light-collecting units of the
chloroplast. Proteins in the thylakoid
membrane organize chlorophyll and other
pigments into clusters called photosystems.

Antenna Complex and Reaction Centre

In the thylakoid membrane there are roughly
200-300 chlorophyll molecules and accessory
pigments (carotenoids) and proteins which
form structures called antenna complex and LIGHT REACTIONS OF
reaction centers. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Together with other proteins which capture

and process excited electrons, they comprise
the photosystems.

 Vertical axis, reduction potential.

 Top more negative, easily donate
electrons.
 Bottom endothermic/endorgenic,
require energy inputs.

PHOTOSYSTEM II
- P680 (most reactive and best in absorbing 2. The energy passes from one
light at a wavelength of 680 nm). chlorophyll to another.
- Electron transport chain system made up 3. When the energy arrives at a key
of: chlorophyll molecule that is touching
 Phaeophytin, plastoquinone, a membrane bound protein,
Cytochrome 6bf complex, 4. the excited electron is then transferred
Plastocyanin (in this order). from that key chlorophyll molecule to
 Some mobile, some immobile. an acceptor molecule in the
membrane.
Reaction Centers and Electron Acceptors:
- Excited electrons are transferred from the
reactions center to a specialized
chlorophyll molecule that acts as an
electron acceptor.
- The acceptor is then reduced.
- It only works when there is light (the
redox reactions that transfer an electron to
the electron acceptor are 5. The high-energy electron is passed to
endergonic/endothermic). an acceptor molecule and,
- Pheophytin is the primary electron 6. is replaced with an electron from
acceptor for PSII. (Its structure is identical water.
to chlorophyll except it lacks a 7. This splitting of water releases the O2.
magnesium atom in the head region).

PHOTOSYSTEM I

Light
Reactions

200-300
Electron
Chlorophyll
Acceptor
Molecules

PHOTOSYSTEM

Antenna
Complex Excites
Reaction Electrons
Centre

Electron
Transferring
Proteins
- P700
- Discovered first (therefore denoted as I)
- Electron transport system made up of:
 Membrane bound iron Sulphur PHOTOSYNTHESIS
proteins, Ferredoxin, NADP+ (Photosystems, the Electron Transport Chain and
ATP Synthase)
reductase.
 Some mobile, some immobile.
Important players in the light reactions:
How Does it Start? What Happens first? 1. Photosystem I (PSI) & Photosystem II
EXCITE THE ELECTRONS: (PSII):
1. A photon of light strikes any  Contain chlorophyll molecules and
chlorophyll molecules in the other proteins responsible for moving
photosystem. electrons from water.
2. Electron Transport Chain:
  Generates a store of potential energy - The high concentration of protons in the
 in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient lumen can be used as an energy source to
in the thylakoid space, make ATP molecules.
 with the H+ concentration in the - Protons are restricted from crossing the
thylakoid being higher than that found membrane and are only able to move back
in the stroma. across the membrane in special channels.
- The movement of protons as they pass
3. ATP Synthase: through the ATP synthase drives the
 Uses the energy generated by the conversion of ADP to ATP.
hydrogen ion gradient to produce ATP. - This process is called chemiosmosis and it
makes the ATP that is used in the Calvin
Cycle to make carbohydrates.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

Electron transport system  the excited
electron is shuttled along a series of electron-
carrier molecules embedded in the membrane.

The energy from the electron is released in

small amounts as the electron passes along the
electron transport system. This energy is used
to pump hydrogen ions (protons, H+) across
the membrane (from stroma into lumen). This (Look at the difference in what is happening
results in a high concentration of protons in in the lumen and stroma)
the lumen.

Making NADPH
Once the electron leaves the transport system,
it enters another photosystem – i.e. it is re-
energized (by PC):
MAKING ATP – Photophosphorylation - By the absorption of another photon of
light
- PSI – 700 (Photosystems, the Electron Transport Chain and
ATP Synthase)
The energized electron enters another electron
transport system (Ferredoxin) where it is How does carbon dioxide (CO2) get into the
again passed along a series of electron-carrier cells?
molecules.

The electron is eventually transferred to a

molecule of NADP+. The addition of a
hydrogen ion is used to create a molecule of
NADPH.

The Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle has three phases:
1. Fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration

It is a cycle because it forms a feedback loop

in which the product is again used as a
Both ATP and NADPH are important for the
reactant.
synthesis of carbohydrates in the Calvin
Cycle.

Phase 1: Carbon Fixation:

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
  Carbon dioxide comes into the stroma
of the chloroplast.
 The enzyme Rubisco catalyzes the
bonding of CO2 to Ribulose - Three turns of the Calvin Cycle are
Biphosphate (RuBP; a 5-carbon needed to OUTPUT one G3P molecule.
molecule) to create an unstable 6- - Six turns of the cycle, or 6 CO2, 18 ATP,
carbon molecule. 12 NADPH, are needed to produce one
 This immediately splits into two 3- molecule of glucose.
phsophoglycerate – (3 carbon
molecules). WHY?
G3P – 3C
Phase 2: Reduction Glucose – 6C

 Each 3-phosphoglycerate molecule is

phosphorylated by ATP to create 3-
biphosphoglycerate.
 And NADPH donates electros and
reduces 3-biphosphoglycerate,
 Loses a phosphate group and becomes
glyceraldehyde 3-posphate (G3P –
there are 6 of these).

Phase 3: Regeneration
 For every six molecules of G3P
created, five molecules continue into What happens to the sugar that is produced by
the regeneration phase. photosynthesis?
 The one left is used to produce organic - G3P molecules exit the Calvin Cycle.
compounds. - Glucose and Fructose (monosaccharide)
 ATP is needed to phosphorylate 5 of are produced, together form sucrose (a
the G3P to regenerate RuBP. disaccharide)
- This occurs when photosynthesis is taking It is very inefficient.
place slowly – sucrose is water soluble  Instead of aways using CO2, this side
and is easily transported. reaction initiates a pathway called
photorespiration.
 Which, rather than fixing carbon,
leads to the loss of already fixed
carbon.
 Photorespiration wastes energy and
decreases sugar synthesis.
 It is a wasteful pathway that occurs
when the Calvin cycle rubisco acts on
oxygen rather than CO2.
- If photosynthesis is occurring at a rapid
rate, glucose molecules polymerize to It catalyzes the addition of oxygen to RuBP
form starch. AS WELL AS the addition of CO2 to RuBP.
- Which is stored in the cells of leaves and
roots. RuBP + O2 = 2-phosphoglycolate. This is
- Sucrose production is in the cytosol. processed in reactions that consumer ATP and
- Starch production is in the chloroplast. O2 and release CO2.

PHOTORESPIRATION

It is called photorespiration because:

- It involves the consumption of ATP and
O2 and the release of CO2.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - It can occur in chloroplasts, peroxisomes,
(Photorespiration and the “problem” of rubisco) and mitochondria.
- The reaction sequence closely resembles
 Majority of plant species on earth use respiration (uses O2 releases CO2).
C3 photosynthesis.
 The first carbon compound produced Photorespiration consumes energy and
contains three carbon atoms. releases fixed CO2, so it will undo
 CO2 enters a plant through its stomata photosynthesis. When it occurs the overall
(which are microscopic pores on plant rate of photosynthesis declines. It also
leaves) occurs when O2 concentrations are high and
 The enzyme rubisco fixes carbon into CO2 levels are low. i.e. BAD for
sugar through the Calvin-Benson photosynthesis.
cycle.
The stomata control the CO2 concentrations.
Ribulose – 1,5 bisphosphate The Calvin cycle constantly uses up CO2
carboxylase/oxygenase – RUBISO maintaining a CO2 gradient. Stomata are
- Most abundant enzyme on earth open during the day and are closed at night.
- Cube shaped, But what happens if it is hot?
- 8 active sites where CO2 is fixed.
- RIBUSCO is a slow enzyme.
- Each active site catalyzed 3 reactions per
second (other enzymes can catalyze
thousands per sec).
- Plants make HUGE amounts to
compensate for the slow enzyme rate.
 Stomata open during the day and close
Ribulose also has a major flaw! at night.
  Close stomata when temperatures
increase. WHY?
o Decrease water loss.
o Lower CO2 concentration
o Increase O2 concentration.
 High O2 concentration =
PHOTORESPIRATION.

How do C4 plants minimize

photorespiration?

- C3 Plants do not have the anatomic

structure (no bundle sheath cells) nor the
abundance of PEP carboxylase to avoid
photorespiration like C4 plants.
- C4 plants minimize photorespiration by
separating initial CO2 fixation and the
Calvin cycle in space, performing these
steps in different cell types.
Questions: the three phases, the reactions in each
1. State the first law of thermodynamics. phase, the final product).
2. State the second law of 24. How are electrons excited in PSII?
thermodynamics.
3. Describe the relationship between
potential energy and entropy.
4. Describe the difference between
exothermic and endothermic reactions
and provide examples of each
reaction.
5. List the properties of glucose.
6. Why are the phosphoanyhdride bonds
considered high-energy?
7. Distinguish between phosphorylation
and de-phosphorylation.
8. Define photophosphorylation.
9. Describe the properties of ATP and
why it is an energy rich molecule.
10. Explain REDOX reactions.
11. Describe how NAD+ is reduced to
NADH.
12. Describe how NADP+ is reduced to
NADPH.
13. Explain the role of NADPH and
NADH as electron carriers.
14. *Why is photosynthesis considered to
be amongst the most important events
in the history of the Earth?
15. How and why did the gases of the
early atmosphere change with the
evolution of photosynthesis?
16. Explain the endosymbiotic theory and
list the advantages of organelles.
17. What are the requirements for
photosynthesis?
18. Brown and red seaweed are
photosynthetic, why are they not
green?
19. Distinguish between autotrophs and
heterotrophs.
20. Describe the structure of chloroplasts.
21. Describe the properties of light and
which wavelengths are important for
photosynthesis.
22. *Describe how electrons are excited in
PSI and PSII, which molecules
transport them down the electron
transport chain, what the products are
and where and how these products are
made.
23. *Describe the events of the Calvin
Cycle (requirements, where it occurs,