BIOENERGETICS

SOLAR ENERGY: The source and importance of Energy

In order to maintain its order, the cells of living organism require energy. The major source of
energy for all living organism is the radiant energy that is released by the sun. However, only 1%
of this energy is able to be captured by green plans, algae and cyano bacteria. Their ability to
capture this radiant energy and store them as chemical energy in complex molecules is due to
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll-containing plants trap
solar/radiant energy to reduce water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is a
complex biomolecule that serves as a source of stored chemical energy. This stored energy in
these complex plant molecules is a Potential energy. Animals can transform the potential energy
stored in these complex molecules into some energy of motion called Kinetic energy. The
transformation of energy from one form to other results in the loss of some energy as heat. In the
complex food molecule the amount energy is measured in quantities called Kilocalories which
means 1000 calories (kilo- 1000, calories-the amount of energy require to raise the temperature
of 1 gram of water to 1 degree Celsius).
The utilization and the interconversion of energy in plants and animals are governed by
the laws of thermodynamics. The first law states that energy can neither be destroyed nor
created, but can be changed from one form to another. In this process energy is conserved,
however the second law of thermodynamics or the law of entropy on casual investigation seems
to contradict the first law instead of complementing it. The second law of Thermodynamics
indicates that the transformation of energy from one form to another is associated with the loss of
usable energy in the form. For example, plants capture solar energy to convert energy-poor
carbon dioxide and water to chemical energy-rich complex molecule called carbohydrate. Not all
of the energy capture by the plants is transformed but some of it dissipates as heat. The release of
heat increase disorderliness which is referred to as entropy. Animals are able to release the stored
chemical energy in carbohydrate into energy of motion, such as running, called Kinetic Energy.
ATP THE ENERGY CURRENCY OF CELLS
The cells of all living things require energy to carry out vital functions such as respiration and
synthesis of complex macromolecules (carbohydrates, protein and plant fats). The source of this
energy is the energy excitable molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a
nucleotide (what is a nucleotide?) made of a ribose sugar, a nitrogen containing base called
adenine and three phosphate (PO4-3 ). The three negatively charge phosphate groups repel
themselves making the molecule unstable. This instability leads to the sequential breakdown and
release of a phosphate group (~P) that is associated with the release of energy. The energy
release from the hydrolysis of ATP (what is hydrolysis?) into ADP with the release of an energy-
high phosphate (~P) is always associated with a reaction requiring the energy. An example of the
breakdown of glucose in a process called glycolysis.
Energy is released from the breakdown of complex molecules like carbohydrates. In
energy-requiring reaction called endergonic reaction, the energy is supplied by the hydrolysis of
ATP into ADP (ATP----------- ADP + ~P + ENERGY). Energy-releasing reaction called an
exergonic reaction, is used to provide the energy needed to make ATP (ADP + ~P+ Energy ------
-- ATP). The breakdown of ATP to release a high energy (exergonic reaction) phosphate
molecule is always coupled to an energy requiring reaction (endergonic reaction) a phenomenon
known as coupled reaction. Coupled reactions are reactions that involved both exergonic and
endergonic reactions occurring at the same time and the same place. The coupling of ATP
hydrolysis to energy-requiring reactions occur in two main ways: (1) by activating/energizing the
reactant and (2)by changing the shape of the reactant. For example the high energy ~P can be
used to change the shape of the myosin-actin complex to cause muscle contraction or use to
change the shape of a protein in the plasma membrane to allow the movement of ions across the
membrane. Coupled reactions of ATP drives highly unfavorable reaction to create an ordered
mechanism (such as building complex macromolecules, formation of cells, tissues etc) that is
needed for live to occur in organism.
THE ATP CYCLE
ATP----------- ADP + ~P + ENERGY
ADP ----------- AMP + ~P + ENERGY
ATP= ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
ADP= ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE
AMP= ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE
The site of maximum production of ATP is in the mitochondria of the cells and it occurs in a
process called Cellular Respiration. During this process, the final product from the breakdown of
glucose is converted into 38 molecules of ATP, which represents only 39% of the actual energy
contained in a glucose molecule. The rest is released as heat leading to increased entropy, further
obeying the Second Law of Thermodynamic.

In complex macromolecules like carbohydrates and fats, the C-H bonds are excellent sources of
energy storage. During cellular respiration the energy is extracted and used to rebuild ATP. For
example, the breakdown in glucose to produce ATP.
ADP + ~P -------- ATP.
Thus, the continuous breakdown and regeneration of ATP is called the ATP cycle. This is an
important bioenergetic process.

METABOLISM AND ENZYME-CATALYZED REACTIONS

Metabolism is the sum totals of all chemical reactions that occurs in the cells, It involves both
catabolism and anabolism (assignment#1: compare and contrast catabolism and anabolism
and provide examples).The reactions in the cells must be controlled and speed up to achieve the
needed function and make the needed products. This function is facilitated by Enzymes.
Enzymes are a protein molecule that serves as a catalyst, i.e., it speeds up the chemical reaction
in the cell without being consumed in the process. It achieves this by binding to a specific
reactant known as substrate to form an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme only speed up
chemical reactions that are thermodynamically favorable by lowering the energy barrier called
energy of Activation (Ea). This results in the proper orientations of the reactants at the
temperature of the body to cause an effective collision leading to the reaction. Each enzyme has
a specific substrate that it binds to at its (enzyme) active site. The active site is the site at which
the enzyme binds to the substrate. The lock and key theory of enzyme-substrate reaction has
been changed to the induced fit model. In this model, the active site of the enzyme is altered
slightly to fit into the substrate and lead to the reaction. At the end of the reaction the enzyme is
recovered.

FACTORS THAT EFFECT ENZYME ACTIVITY AND THE RATE OF REACCTION

The rate of a reaction is the amount of product that is produced per unit time. The rate of the
reaction is affected by the activities of the enzyme. The activities of the enzymes are affected by
the following factors: substrate concentration, Temperature, PH, Cofactors
Substrate concentration: As the substrate concentration increases there are great chances for
the enzyme to encounter the substrate. Thus, the active sites are more easily filled by the
substrates leading to rapid production of product.
Temperature: there is a range of increase in temperature that results in the increase in enzyme
activities. It has been demonstrated in the laboratory that a temperature increase beyond this
optimum temperature leads to a denaturing of the enzyme. Denatured enzyme: loses its shape
which affects its active site and thus its enzymatic activities. Exceptions are enzymes in
prokaryotes in Hot spring.
Optimum PH: the acidity and the basicity of the medium in which the enzyme function can
affect the activity of the enzyme. At a particular range of optimum PH the enzyme activity is at
the highest. Above this range the activity is reduced and an unusual alternation in the PH it may
cause the enzyme to be denatured. The PH affects the interaction of the side-chains of the
globular proteins in an enzyme.

Cofactors: are inorganic ions or non-protein organic molecules that are required in order for an
enzyme to be active. Examples of inorganic ions include Zinc, Copper or Iron. Coenzymes are
the non-protein organic molecules that make the enzyme to be active. Examples of coenzymes
are the vitamins. Vitamin deficiency results from the hindrance or reduction of the activities of
enzymes due to the absence or limited amount of coenzymes. Example of vitamin-deficiency
diseases include scurvy due to the lack of vitamin C and pellagra (a skin disease) due to niacin
deficiency (What is the vitamin for niacin).

ENZYME INHIBITION
Reactions in living organisms occur in Metabolic Pathways, which are a series of linked
reactions. Enzyme-catalyzed reaction can be inhibited in a negative feedback loop. Under this
condition, the excessive products at the end of a metabolic pathway, bind to the active site of the
enzymes and inhibits further production of the products until the product is consumed to a
specific level..
Noncompetitive Inhibition: occurs when an enzyme inhibitor binds to a site other then the
active site and cause an alteration in the shape of the active site. This site that influences the
shape of the active site is called the allosteric site.
Competitive inhibition: the substrate and the inhibitor compete for the active site of the
enzyme. This is usually overcome by increasing the concentration of the substrates so that it
outcompetes the inhibitor at the active site. Example: Exposing a person who has carbon
monoxide poisoning to adequate oxygen to reverse their conditions.

PUBLIC HEALTH APPLICATION PROJECT

(1) Interview one or more officials from the Ministry of Health on the Public Health
importance of vitamin A distribution campaign. Report this in the context of coenzyme
and vitamin deficiency.
(2) What is the Public Health importance to Liberia of zinc in the treatment of children with
diarrhea?
(3) Pregnant women are given some form of iron during antenatal visit. What is the Public
Health relevance of this treatment in this population in Liberia?
(4) What is the Public Health risks associated with keeping generator operating in a confined
space? How relevant is this our discussion on enzyme inhibitors? (Hinct: Carbon dioxide
versus carbon monoxide)