INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE SENSING

INTRODUCTION
REMOTE SENSING REMOTE Never coming into contact with, at a distance SENSING to measure or record

INTRODUCTION
What is remote sensing ? Remote Sensing Is .

Infering something about the nature of an object, surface/area, or phenomenon

through the analysis of data/information collected by a sensor that is not in physical contact with the object, surface/area or phenomenon under investigation....

INTRODUCTION

Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area or phenomena under investigation

(Lillesand & Kieffer, 5th Edition) obtain information

Collect data

Data: In the form of force distribution, acoustic wave distribution or electromagnetic energy distribution.

INTRODUCTION

Interpretation of atmospheric and earth surface features are based on the measurements made by the sensor

Usually the image is produced from digital data The sensor scan the earth line by line Data in digital form is process ( display, enhance, manipulated ) using the computer which is more efficient.

INTRODUCTION

A: Rotating Mirror B: Detectors C: Instantaneous Field of View D: Ground Resolution Cell E: Angular Field of View F: Swath

A: Linear Array of Detectors B: Focal Plane of Image C: Lense D: Ground Resolution Cell

WHY REMOTE SENSING?

Remote Sensing Enables us to. i) make observations over a broad area ii) undertake repeat observations and monitor over time scales that are relevant to the problem/question iii) use real-time data iv) know the condition without visiting the area v) acquire invisible information There are now some high resolution data sets available (at relatively low cost)

WHY REMOTE SENSING?

i) Enables us to make observations over a broad area

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WHY REMOTE SENSING?

ii) Enables us to observe an area for a long period.

Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo

WHY REMOTE SENSING?

iii) Enables us to use real-time Data

WHY REMOTE SENSING?

(iv) Enables us to know the condition without visiting the area

WHY REMOTE SENSING?

iv) Enables us to acquire invisible information
The worlds first space borne rain radar aboard the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) [joint U.S.-Japanese mission]

Visible and infrared radiometers yield temperatures

WHY REMOTE SENSING?

Examples of high resolution data sets

High resolution data from 680 km above the Earth!

Remote Sensing Process

1.An Energy Source or Illumination (A) First requirement for RS is to have an energy source or signal which illuminates or provide electromagnetic energy to the target of interest. This signal reveals the presence, and perhaps some properties, of the object, surface, area or phenomenon we wish to study. The source of radiation could be the natural emissions from the sun, ocean surface, land, atmosphere, and/or space; or it could be generated by the aircraft or satellite carrying the sensor.

Remote Sensing Process

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B): as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor. i.e. The medium between the signal and the sensor.

Remote Sensing Process

3. Interaction with the Target (C): once the energy makes its way to the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.

Remote Sensing Process

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D): After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation. What type of sensor? What wavelength is the sensor operating at?

Remote Sensing Process

5.Transmission, Processing (E): Reception, and

The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

Remote Sensing Process

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F): The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

Remote Sensing Process

7. Application (G): The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

Electromagnetic remote sensing of earth resources:

generalized processes and elements

From Lillesand and Kiefer (2004)

DATA COLLECTION
Remotely sensed collected using either:

data

are

passive remote sensing: (record naturally occurring electromagnetic radiation that is reflected or emitted from terrain) active remote sensing:(man-made electromagnetic energy e.g radar)

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DATA COLLECTION
Format and quality of the data varies widely. These variations are dependent upon the resolution of the sensor. Resolution (or resolving power) is a measure of the ability of an optical system to distinguish between signals that are spatially near or spectrally similar.

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There are four types of resolution that effect the quality and nature of the data collected :
Radiometric resolution refers to the sensitivity of the sensor to incoming radiance (i.e., How much change in radiance must there be on the sensor before a change in recorded brightness value takes place?). This sensitivity to different signal levels will determine the total number of values that can be generated by the sensor(Jensen, 1996).

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RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION

8-bit quantization (256 levels)

6-bit quantization (64 levels)

2-bit quantization (4 levels)

1-bit quantization (2 levels)

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SPATIAL RESOLUTION

Spatial resolution is a measurement of the minimum distance between two objects that will allow them to be differentiated from one another in an image (Sabins, 1978; Jensen, 1996). This is a function of sensor altitude, detector size, focal size and system configuration. For aerial photography the spatial resolution is usually measured in resolvable line pairs per millimeter on the image. For other sensors it is given as the dimensions, in meters, of the ground area which falls within the instantaneous field of view of a single detector within an array - or pixel size (Logicon, 1997)

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SPATIAL RESOLUTION

10m Spatial Resolution

30m Spatial Resolution

80m Spatial Resolution

0.6 m Spatial Resolution

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Jensen, 2000 Jensen, 2000

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Introduction

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SPECTRAL RESOLUTION
Spectral resolution: The number and size of the bands which can be recorded by a sensor .Sensors also are unique with regard to what portions of the electromagnetic spectrum they see. Different remote sensing instruments record different segments, or bands, of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The Figure illustrates this principle by showing the spectral reflectance curves, or spectral signatures, generated when two sensors are used on the same target. Both sensors cover the same range of the electromagnetic spectrum (2 to 2.5 um). The solid bars at the top of the graph represent the specific segments of electromagnetic energy that each sensor can detect and record. The first sensor (shown in red) has 17 bands in this range, while the second sensor (shown in blue) records the energy in only four bands. As can be seen, the reflectance curve of the first sensor has greater detail, which may be useful in distinguishing its target from other objects with similarcompositions.

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LANDSAT 7 ETM+ BANDS

BAND 1(VISIBLE: 0.45 0. 52 m) )

BAND 2(VISIBLE: 0.53 0.60m) )

BAND 3 (VISIBLE: 0.63 0.69m )

BAND 4(SW NEAR IR) 0.76 0.90 m

BAND 5(NEAR IR) 1.55 1.75m

BAND 6 (THERMAL IR) 10.4 12.5m

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BAND 7(MID IR: 2.09 2.35m )

BAND 8(PANCHROMATIC: 0.52 0.90m )

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TEMPORAL RESOLUTION

Temporal resolution refers to the amount of time it takes for a sensor to return to a previously recorded location. This aspect of resolution becomes important when change detection being done. Most orbital remote sensing platforms will pass over the same spot at regular time intervals that range from days to weeks depending on their orbit and spatial resolution. Data collected on multiple dates allows the scientist to chart changes of phenomena through time.

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Temporal Resolution Temporal Resolution

Remote Sensor Data Acquisition Remote Sensor Data Acquisition

June 1, 2005 June 1, 2005

June 17, 2005 June 17, 2005

July 3, 2005 July 3, 2005

16 days 16 days

Jensen, 2000 Jensen, 2000

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Remote Sensing Terminology & Units

Temperature in unit Kelvin (K) to convert from degrees Celsius to Kelvin, simply add 273.15, e.g. 10 C = 283.15 K Angle Plane angle in unit radian () Solid angle in unit steradian () Solid angle is the angle subtended by an area (As) on the surface of the sphere divided by the square of the radius (r) of the sphere = As / r2

Remote Sensing Terminology & Units

Radiant energy = the total energy radiated in all directions (Joule,J) Radiant density = the total energy radiated by a unit area in all directions (Joule per cubic metre, J m-3) Radiant flux = the total energy radiated in all directions for a unit of time (Watt, W) Radiant exitance = the total energy radiated in all directions by a unit area in a unit time (Watt per square metre, W m-2 ) Irradiance = the total energy radiated onto a unit area in a unit time (Watt per square metre, W m-2 )

Remote Sensing Terminology & Units

Radiance = the total energy radiated by a unit area per solid angle (Watt per square metre per steradian, W m-2 sr-1) Reflectance = the ratio of incident energy to a reflected energy of an object ( unitless, stated in %) Absorptance = the ability of an object to absorb energy (%) Transmittance = the ratio of incident energy to a transmitted energy of an object (%) Digital number or digital value or grey levels = the value of each pixel in a RS image ( showing the radiance scan by the sensor)

THE REMOTE SENSING PROCESS

Scientific remote sensing uses SENSORS to gather information about surfaces for achieving analysis and assessment. Remote Sensing comprises 2 main phases: data collection data analysis (manual or computer based). There are four basic components in the data collection phase: i. energy ii. surface (or object) iii. data collection iv. data storage

THE REMOTE SENSING PROCESS

example everyday remote sensing system:
Sun

energy surface data collection(sensor) data storage

sun tree eye brain

Tree Brain

Eye

THE REMOTE SENSING PROCESS

example scientific remote sensing system: energy surface data collection(sensor) data storage sun tree sensor/camera computer disk/photograph
Satellite Sensor

Digital Data (Computer)

THE REMOTE SENSING PROCESS

Sensor systems gather the data while storage systems record/save it for later analysis. Information may be stored and presented for analysis in analogue or digital form. Analogue: Pictorial (hardcopy) representation of surface, e.g. light sensitized material (photographic film). Digital: Use of numerals to record the level or intensity of response (e.g. satellite image)

THE REMOTE SENSING PROCESS

Analysis of remotely sensed data may use either analogue or digital images or a combination of both. e.g analogue image analysis - photographic interpretation digital image analysis - digital pattern recognition In analogue remote sensing we are concerned with the interpretation of analogue images. Digital remote sensing deals with the analysis of digital images using a computer and suitable software.

History & Development Of RS

1800 Discovery of infrared by Sir William Herschel 1839 Louis Daguerre invented a practical photographic process 1840 Arago demonstrated the use of photographs in topographic mapping 1849 Col. Aime Laussedat used kites and balloons for taking aerial photographs 1861 Three-colour photographic process was developed 1873 Theory of electromagnetic energy developed by James Clerk Maxwell 1886 Surveyor General of Canada introduced topographic mapping using photogrammetry into North America

History & Development Of RS

History & Development Of RS

1891 roll film was perfected 1894 US Coast and Geodetic Survey adopted photogrammetry for mapping along the border between Canada and the Alaska territory End of 1800s Most novel platform the famed pigeon fleet that operated in Europe 1902 Wright brothers (US) invented the airplane 1909 Dr. Carl Pulfrich (Germany) experimented with stereo pairs

History & Development Of RS

1913 the airplane was first used for obtaining photographs for mapping purposes 1914-1918 WWI - aerial photographs were used extensively for reconnaissance purposes 1920-1940 aerial photogrammetry for topographic mapping progressed to the point of mass production of maps 1939-1945 WWII - aerial photos were used extensively for mapping, reconnaissance and intelligence

History & Development Of RS

1945-1960 development of photogrammetry for peaceful purposes in a variety of disciplines 1960 first meteorological satellite launched TIROS 1 (Television and Infrared Observation Satellite) Early 1960s term "remote sensing" coined to describe the new kinds of images formed using energy outside of the visible spectrum 1962-1965 US Mercury and Gemini Programs

History & Development Of RS

1968-1972 Apollo program. RS Matured in the 1970s Became an operational system for collecting information about Earth on a repetitive schedule Skylab (1973, & later, the Space Shuttle Landsat (1972, 1st of 7 satellites) 1st satellite dedicated to mapping natural & cultural resources on land & ocean surfaces Seasat (1978), - 1st radar imaging systems

History & Development Of RS

RS in the 1980s A variety of specialised Sensors Research or Feasibility Programs Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 1981-present space shuttle crews acquire images with the large format camera (LFC) and the shuttle imaging radar (SIR). 1982 1986 Landsat 4. Spot 1.

History & Development Of RS

1990's 2000's radar satellites. Mission to Planet Earth; space station.

Design of sensors which have better spatial & spectral resolution. Spot 4 & Spot 5 Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Ikonos 1 m spatial resolution Quickbird 0.6 m spatial resolution Hyperspectral sensors MODIS, Hyperion

History & Development Of RS

Ikonos 1 m resolution

Status of RS in Malaysia?
Space segment

User segment
Ground segment

RS Data Now Accessible to Everyone

Improvement in computer based image processing (especially PCs) - handle large amounts of RS data RS technology are now accessible to - Universities - Resource responsible agencies - Small environmental companies & even individuals

RS has Become a Major Technological & Scientific Tool

Budgetary expenditure on observing Earth & other planets, since the space program began, now exceed $ 150 billion Much of this $$ has been directed towards practical applications - largely focused on environmental & natural resource management Much of this growth was & is being driven by increasing awareness that Earths environments are in peril from mans activities and misuse

Application
RS data can be used for a great variety of practical applications, all of which relate, in general, to Earth resources. Such as: 1. Agriculture 2. Forestry 3. Land Use 4. Disaster 5. Geology 6. Water Resources 7. Environment 8. Fishery 9. Weather 10. Mapping

LAND USE & LAND COVER MAP of SHAH ALAM

TEMPERATURE RANGE MAP of SHAH ALAM

N

Temperature (C) < 18.6 C 18.7 - 21.7 C 21.8 - 24.9 C 25 .0 - 28.0 C 28.1 - 31.2 C 31.3 - 34.3 C

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF HULU LANGAT

SEMENYIH DAM

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF HULU LANGAT

HOT SPRING SURAU DUSUN TUA

GROUND TRUTHING

E 426644 N347370

P4 P3

P2

E 432311 N342025 HOT SPRING IKBN DUSUN TUA

SEMENYIH DAM

E 431955 N341197

E 426466 N347149

Evaluating the effect of urban development to the creation of sedimentation and water quality in the area of Port Klang.

Water features in 1991

Water features in 1998

Principles of Remote Sensing

Utilization of differing Reflectivity:
objects can be identified from visible light reflected from their surfaces. visible light consists of blue, green and red component etc. we see vegetation as green because it strongly reflect green light within the visible light. in addition the surfaces of the objects also reflect near-infrared and ultra-violet light which are invisible to human sight. reflectivity depends on different wavelength.

Principles of Remote Sensing

In reference to these properties, it is possible to identify and classify objects by measuring the strength of light, reflected from the surfaces. reflectivity depends on different wavelength.

Principles of Remote Sensing

Utilization of differing Emissivity:
All objects at temperatures above absolute zero emit thermal energy depending on their own temperature and emissivity (a measure of an objects ability to absorb and radiate energy) Variations in emitted energy provides information about the temperature and thermal properties of surface features Inferences based on thermal properties (emitted energy) leads to inferences about object identities

Basic Wave Definition

Amplitude is the distance from a waves midpoint to its crest or through Wavelength () is the distance between crests Period (T) is the time elapsed between two consecutive crests passing a given point

Basic Wave Definition

Frequency is the number of crests passing a given point in one second. Frequency is the inverse of period - = 1/T , e.g. if T = 0.1 sec, = 10 per second

Basic Wave Definition

Velocity (v) is the distance traveled in a given period of time v = distance / time

velocity of light, c = x , c is a constant :. 1/

As the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases and vice versa

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

Electromagnetic Energy. Electromagnetic energy is the means by which information is transmitted from an object (target) to a sensor. Electromagnetic radiation refers to all energy that moves with the velocity of light (c = 3 x 108 ms-1) in a harmonic wave pattern. Thus giving rise to the equation: c= = frequency (1) = wavelength

Electromagnetic energy (E) relates with the frequency, through a Plank constant, h i.e.:E=h h = 6.3 x 10-34 Js (2)

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

From equation (1) and (2) , E = hc/ From this equation, The electromagnetic energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength The longer the wavelength involved, the lower its energy For this reason, shorter wavelengths are easier to sense than very long ones. (3)

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

Electromagnetic Spectrum Electromagnetic energy is so called because the pulses, or waves can be measured both electrically and magnetically. Electromagnetic energy consists of many forms of energy, among these are: visible light, radio waves, microwaves, heat, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, gamma rays. Each of these describes the energy in a specific region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum represents the continuum of electromagnetic energy from extremely short wavelengths (cosmic and gamma rays) to extremely long wavelengths (radio and television waves.

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

(m) near IR: 0.7-1.3 m mid IR: 1.3-3 m thermal IR: 3-14 m

reflected

emitted

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

PORTIONS OF THE EM SPECTRUM UV Photo UV blue green red NIR mid IR thermal IR microwave 3 nanom to 0.4 m 0.2 to 0.4 m 0.4 to 0.5 m 0.5 to 0.6 m 0.6 to 0.7 m 0.7 to 1.3 m 1.3 to 3.0 m 3.0 to 14.0 m 1 mm to 3m photographic visible 0.3 to 0.9 m 0.4 to 0.7 m optical reflective emissive 0.3 to 15 m 0.3 to 3.0 m 3.0 to 14.0 m

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

Source of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) The SUN is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation however all matter at temperatures above absolute zero (0 K, -273C) continuously emits EMR Terrestrial objects are also sources of radiation. Some sensors are active and emit their own energy source (e.g. Radar)

Many remote sensing systems are designed to collect reflected radiation.

Solar levels vary with time and location

Passive sensor

Different earth surfaces emit and reflect with varying degrees of efficiency

*Nonuniform spectral distribution of reflected and emitted energy

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

The physical basis of remote sensing lies in the ability to measure variations in field strength. Analysis is usually based characteristics: spectral spatial temporal e.g. e.g. e.g. on a combination of four

different temperature, colour, wavelength shape, size, location variation daily, monthly, annual, seasonal quantization levels 6-bit, 8-bit

radiometric e.g.

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

i) Spectral response Considered in terms of EM Spectrum, which describes electromagnetic energy in terms of wavelength. Specific sections of the spectrum are also commonly referred to as bands, e.g. blue band, thermal band, etc. In R.S. we are interested in measuring the response of objects in specific bands. Features on the earths surface react differently in various bands of the spectrum.

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

ii) Spatial response Form the basis of feature recognition and interpretation Changes in space of spectral response lead to patterns, shapes and sizes These are important for different features to be recognised

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

iii) Temporal response How spectral and spatial response vary with time, e.g. trees change colour in different seasons, new building may be constructed, trees knocked down, water looks different when rough as opposed to calm Temporal response is a measure of change between images of the same scene but taken at different times

iv) Radiometric response Radiometric response refers to the dynamic range, or the number of different output levels used to record the radiant energy for a single measurement.

Physical Basis of Remote Sensing

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
A remotely sensed image is not a photograph. It is a numerical representation of a target (usually an area of the Earth's surface) in terms of the spatial variation of reflectance over the area in a specific spectral band. An image consists of a set of reflectance values stored in numerical form in a manner suitable for input to a computer. In most cases this representation is in matrix form, in which a single cell or pixel of the matrix holds the reflectance value for the corresponding ground area.

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
The reflectance values are rescaled normally to the range 0-255 in order to facilitate their storage and transfer Multi spectral images consist of two or more registered images showing the variations in reflectance in two/more separate spectral bands Hardware and software specially designed to input and process digital images provide the capability to produce a pictorial rendition of targets. The images that we see on a computer screen are made up of picture elements (abbreviated as pixels).

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
Pixel: A picture element has both spatial and spectral properties. The spatial property defines the dimensions of the corresponding ground area. The spectral property defines the intensity of the spectral response for a pixel in a particular band

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
A horizontal row of pixels in an image forms a scan line which is either collected sequentially as the sensor moves left to right or simultaneously through the use of a linear array of photo detectors. In the former case the energy reflected from the ground is focused on to a single detector, and the continuous signal for one scan line is converted to a set of discrete pixel values. In the latter case electromagnetic radiation from the ground is focused onto a set of 'n' detectors, one for each pixel.

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
An image is composed of pixels geographically ordered and adjacent to one another consisting of 'n' pixels in the x direction and 'm' pixels in the y direction.

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
Picture element - pixel. pixel

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
When only one band of the EM spectrum is sensed, the display device (usually a colour monitor) renders the pixels in shades of grey

Thematic Mapper Band 1

Multispectral sensors detect reflectance in more than one band of the EM spectrum

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
When combined into the red, green, blue guns of a colour monitor, they form a range of colours

NATURE OF AN IMAGE
A multi spectral image is composed of 'n' rows and 'm' columns of pixels in each of three or more spectral bands. A single image set may therefore contain several co-registered digital images representing the spectral reflectance in different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

These different data sets are referred to as spectral bands, bands, or channels

Radiation Laws
Concepts of EMR emission: The amount of radiation emitted by an object is determined primarily by its : 1. 2 Internal temperature; and Emissivity

Kinetic temperature the internal temperature of an object measured by direct contact Radiant temperature the amount of energy radiated (emitted) by an object measured remotely

Radiation Laws
A Blackbody is a hypothetical, ideal radiator that totally absorbs and reemits all energy incident upon it. Most celestial objects are close to being black bodies. Radiation Laws describe the shape of the spectral emission from a blackbody. Fig: Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various temperatures.

Radiation Laws
The relation between peak wavelength and radiant body temperature is governed by: Wiens Displacement Law: as the temperature of an object increases, the wavelengths at which the object emits most energy (appears brightest) decreases max = A/T (4) where:
max = wavelength of maximum emitted energy (m) A = Weins constant = 2898 mK T = temperature (K)

Radiation Laws
Stefan-Boltzman Law The amount of energy emitted from a blackbody is primarily a function of its temperature: (5) M = T4 where: M = total radiant exitance ( Wm-2) = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4 The point to note is that radiation increases with T4 (a very high exponential increase) i.e hotter objects emit more energy

Radiation Laws
For a greybody (not a blackbody), equation 5 can be written as: (6) M = T4 = emissivity of the object ( - between 0 and 1) Emissivity = the ratio of energy radiated from an object with the energy radiated from a blackbody at the same temperature

M GB = M BB

Radiation Laws
Perfect reflector, = 0, whitebody Perfect absorber, = 1, blackbody Example of emissivity values: Water = 0.98 Brick = 0.93 Tree leaves = 0.96

Wood = 0.90 Sand = 0.91 Granitic rock = 0.89

Radiation Laws
Emissivity is Crucial ! Different substances at the same temperature can emit different amounts of radiation because of their different emissivities

M GB = M BB

MBB = T4

MGB = T4

Radiation Laws MGB = T4

So, we can distinguish different surfaces based on their differing emissivities: fresh and salt water, ice and frozen land Emissivity also allows us to define a radiant temperature: Trad = 1/4T T is the kinetic temperature which we have been using all along

Radiation Laws
Radiant

vs. Kinetic Temperature

The trick for remote sensing is to relate the radiant

temperature, which is measured by a radiometer, back to the kinetic temperature, which is measured by a thermometer

Terminology of Temperatures

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

All radiation used for remote sensing must pass through the atmosphere Before we can apply our radiation laws to remote sensing applications, we must understand the role of the atmosphere: Atmospheric Absorption Atmospheric Scattering EMR interacts with: molecular species particulates (aerosols) hydrometeors -

CO2, O3, H2O dust rainfall

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Absorption and Scattering act to reduce the amount of received by the satellite: Absorption + Scattering = Attenuation Attenuation is the energy loss caused by the atmosphere. Absorption: energy is absorbed and re-radiated again in all directions, usually over a different range of wavelengths Scattering: energy is lost by redirection away from the satellites field of view, but wavelength remains the same radiation

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.

Scattering:

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

The type of scattering which occurs depends on the size of the interfering particles in the atmosphere relative to the wavelength of energy incident upon them: Rayleigh scattering: Upper atmosphere scattering, sometimes called clear atmosphere scattering Consists of scattering from atmospheric gasses e.g., atmospheric molecules O2 and N2 Is wavelength dependent Atmospheric particles have a diameter smaller than the incident wavelength.

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Rayleigh scattering (Continue): The amount of scattering increases greatly at shorter wavelengths (the amount of scattering -4) Blue light is scattered about four times as much as red light and UV light about 16 times as red light Dominant in the upper atmosphere - at elevations of 9 to 10km above the surface Causes the blue color of the sky and the brilliant red colors at sunset.

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Mie scattering: Particle size = wavelength e.g., water vapour, dust, pollen, smoke wavelength dependent: affects longer wavelengths more than Rayleigh scattering dominant in the lower atmosphere

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Non-selective scattering: Particle size > wavelength e.g., water droplets not wavelength dependent: all visible wavelengths are scattered equally. Primary cause of haze Implications of scattering for Remote Sensing : We dont typically acquire RS imagery in the blue & UV portions of the spectrum skylight can give false readings at the sensor atmospheric haze can reduce image quality

Scattering: Summerization

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Absorption: Molecules in the atmospheric absorb energy at various wavelengths The most efficient absorbers of of solar radiation: Ozone (Ultraviolet) CO2 (Thermal infrared) Water vapour Because these gasses absorb in specific wavelength bands it strongly influences where we look spectrally

Atmospheric windows
The wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is particularly Atmosphere transmissive of energy
blocks energy

Important windows
Band (m)
0.3 - 0.9 1.0 - 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.5 4.0 4.6 4.9 8.0 13.0

Region
Visible Near/Reflected IR Near/Reflected IR Near/Reflected IR Near/Reflected IR Thermal IR Thermal IR Thermal IR

Energy Interactions at the Surface

When EM energy reaches the earths surface it is either reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted.

Absorption occurs when energy is absorbed into the object. Temperature of the object increases.

Energy Interactions at the Surface

Transmission occurs when energy passes through an object without significant attenuation. Reflection occurs when energy is redirected as it strikes the object/surface: specular reflection occurs if the surface is smooth relative to wavelength little information will be transmitted to the sensor diffuse reflection occurs if the surface is rough relative to wavelength contain spectral information on the colour of the reflecting surface

Energy Interactions at the Surface

By applying the principle of conseravation of energy: EI() = ER() + EA() + ET() EI = incident energy ER = relected energy EA = absorbed energy ET = transmitted energy In terms of remote sensing: ER() = EI() - [ EA() + ET() ] The proportion of incident energy which is reflected, absorbed, or transmitted will depend on: the material and condition of the feature the wavelength of the energy

Energy Interactions at the Surface

Reflectance is the proportion of incident energy which is reflected by an object Spectral reflectance is the proportion of incident energy which is reflected by an object at a given wavelength

Energy Interactions at the Surface

Spectral reflectance curve shows the proportion of incident energy which is reflected by an object as a function of wavelength

Spectral signature is a (unique) representation of the spectral reflectance curve for an object

Energy Interactions at the Surface

A fundamental premise in remote sensing is that we can identify and learn about objects and features on the earth surface by studying the spectral characteristics of the radiation (and/or emitted) by these features.

Spectral Properties of Common Surface types

Vegetation Soil Water Urban surfaces

Vegetation
Always manifest the peak and valley configuration Reflectance peaks in green and NIR (grass is red!) The green color of healthy vegetation is due to absorbing properties of a chemical compound in leaves called chlorophyll, which strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths

Vegetation

1.3 Internal structure of leaves Chlorophyll absorption bands

Vegetation
The internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright to us at these wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one way we can determine how healthy (or unhealthy) vegetation may be. Dips in reflectance of vegetation also occur at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 mm because water in the leaf absorbs strongly at these wavelengths. Measuring the spectral characteristics of vegetation at these wavelengths is therefore a function of moisture level in the leaf.

Soil
Less peak & valley variation Factors affecting: moisture content soil texture (proportion of sand, silt & clay) surface roughness iron oxide Coarse sandy soils well drained low moisture content high reflectance Poorly drained fine texture soils lower reflectance

Soil
Reflectance increases from VIS to NIR & MIR depends on soil characteristics

Water absorption bands

Water
Generally low reflectance in VIS, decreases to zero in NIR depends on water quality Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water The topography of the water surface (rough or smooth) can also lead to complications for water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular reflection

Urban Surfaces
Highly variable mix of individual surface types Spatial pattern important TIR useful for heat emission study

Spectral Properties of Common Surface types

Different objects can be better distinguish by using multiple wavelengths as compared to a single wavelength e.g. water and vegetation may reflect somewhat similar in the VIS but are almost always separable in the IR Spectral response can be quite variable, even for the same target type, and can also vary with time and location. Knowing where to look spectrally and understanding the factors which influence the spectral response of the features of interest are critical to correctly interpreting the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the surface.

Idealized Remote Sensing System

Ideal Energy Source uniform Reality non uniform with respect to wavelength, time, and place sensor and data must be calibrated in order to obtain absolute values of reflected energy form an image the atmosphere modifies the strength and spectral distribution of the energy received by the sensor the atmosphere effects vary with time and place compensation for atmospheric effects requires some form of calibration

The Atmosphere

noninterfering

Idealized Remote Sensing System

Ideal Surface Interactions unique & known Reality radically different material types can be remarkably similar spectrally there is a limited understanding of energy/matter interactions for some earth surface features All sensors have fixed limits of spectral sensitivity and spatial resolution require frequent calibration

Sensor

highly sensitive to all wavelengths produce spatially detailed data

Idealized Remote Sensing System

Ideal Data real time processing and interpretation Reality processing sensor data into an interpretable format often is an effort entailing considerable thought, instrumentation, time, experience, and reference data this module is a start !!!

Users

Users have in-depth knowledge of RS and application disciplines