The system formed of n - 1 KCL equations and o = - n + 1 KVL equations allows

determination of currents in the branches of the network.

TRANSIENT STATE OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
USING KIRCHHOFFs LAWS IN TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Applying Kirchhoffs laws to a circuit with n nodes, branches, o = - n + 1
independent loops leads to a system of equations which includes:
n - 1 equations expressing Kirchhoffs current law for the n - 1 nodes of the circuit:
o = - n + 1 equations expressing Kirchhoffs voltage law for the independent
loops of the circuit:
( )

N k
k
i 0
( )

p k
k
u 0
By replacing the voltages across resistors, coils and capacitors the
equations expressing Kirchhoffs voltage law become:
( )
( ) ( )

,
_

+ + + +
p k
k
p k
k c
t
k
k
s
s
s k
k
k k k
e U t i
C t
i
L
t
i
L i R 0 d
1
d
d
d
d
,
0
,
For zero initial voltage value of the capacitors, the KVL relations
become:
( ) ( )

,
_

+ + +
p k
k
p k
t
k
k
s
s
s k
k
k k k
e t i
C t
i
L
t
i
L i R
0
,
d
1
d
d
d
d

Solving the set of KCL & KVL differential equations can be accomplished by using the
known methods for solving linear differential equations with constant coefficients. The
arbitrary constants contained in the general solution of these sets of equations can be
determined if we know the initial values of the currents in the coils and the initial
voltages of the capacitors appearing in KVL equations.
Apart from the steady-state solution these general solutions also contain
components rapidly decreasing with time and becoming negligible, which therefore
are known as transient components.
The steady-state solution components are also called forced components
since their form is determined (forced) by the excitation quantities (the emfs of the
voltage sources, the currents is of the current sources and the terminal voltages of
electrical circuits).
Transient states of circuits must be considered whenever the steady-state of a
circuit is changed. Their effects are due to the energy stored in the magnetic field
and in the electric field of reactive elements, which cannot change instantaneously.
Transient components may also occur in the absence of excitations; for this reason,
these are also known as source free components.

The steady-state components are particular solutions of the set of KCL & KVL
differential equations.
The source-free components are obtained from the general solution of the
corresponding set of homogenous equations, by particularization of the arbitrary
constants as illustrated in the subsequent examples.
Except for some very specific cases, any change occurring in a circuit is
followed by a transient state.
The total resistance of the circuit (resistor, coil,
source and leads) is assumed equal to R.
Initially, the circuit is assumed to be open,
then at time t = 0, the switch is closed. The
KVL is:
Transient state in the case of a coil (R-L series circuit)
Consider the circuit in the figure consisting of the series elements: a coil of
inductance L, a resistor R, a constant emf source E
0
and a switch.
0
d
d
E i R
t
i
L +

with the solution:
is a linear, non-homogenous differential equation (of first -
order) with constant coefficients.
0
d
d
E i R
t
i
L +
The general solution is sought in form of a sum of the free and the steady-state
components of current
( ) ( ) ( ) t i t i t i
p
+

The free component is the solution of the homogenous equation, obtained by
setting its free term equal to zero:
0
d
d
+ i R
t
i
L
The solution of this homogenous equation (containing only the circuit parameters)
has a form that is independent of external factors (sources). It is completely
determined from the initial conditions and is called the free solution (or free
component).
The characteristic equation of the homogenous equation is:
0 + R r L
L
R
r

The solution of the homogenous equation has the general expression:
( )
t
L
R
e K t i

where K is an integration constant which is to be determined from the initial

conditions that must be satisfied by the complete solution.
It can be seen that the free state is a damped process which gradually dies out
over time. This property is a characteristic of usual linear circuits whose parameters
R, L, C are all positive.
The steady-state component is a particular solution of the non-homogenous
equation: and it is called the forced solution since, its form is
determined by the time function, which is the free term of equation, determined by
the external conditions (sources).
Whatever this function is: a constant, an exponential, a sinusoid or a linear
combination of these functions, the forced solution is found in form of a time
function of the same kind as the free term, whose parameters are completely
determined by substitution in the equation and by identification.
0
d
d
E i R
t
i
L +
Since the free term E
0
is a constant, we look for a constant solution , which,
replaced in the equation, leads to the equality R I
0
= E
0
.
Consequently:
( )
0
I t i
p

( )
R
E
t i
p
0

The initial conditions are established as follows:
At the initial time, immediately after switch closure, at t = 0 + , (where is a
positive, arbitrarily small quantity), the current takes the initial value which must
be known to determine constant K.
Before switch closure, at time t = 0 - , the current in the circuit is zero:
i(0 ) = 0. The current in the circuit cannot change abruptly since this would
imply infinitely high rates of change that are incompatible with equation .
Consequently, at t = 0 , the equality i(0 ) = i(0 + ), should hold true,
The general solution of the equation will be:
( )
t
L
R
e K t i

( )
R
E
t i
p
0
( ) ( ) ( ) t i t i t i
p
+

0
d
d
E i R
t
i
L + ( )
R
E
e K t i
t
L
R
0
+

The arbitrary constant contained in the
expression of the general solution is determined
from the initial conditions.
which reduces to:
yielding:
R
E
K
0
0 +
R
E
K
0

The solution of the transient
current in the circuit after
closing the switch is:
( )
R
E
e
R
E
t i
t
L
R
0 0
+

or
( )

,
_

t
L
R
e
R
E
t i 1
0
0
d
d
E i R
t
i
L +

Using the current variation graph, a characteristic
of the circuit, called the time constant can be
determined. The time constant can be defined as
the time during which the current could reach
its steady-state value, if its rate of change
would remain equal to the initial rate of
change.
If the transient solution would maintain its initial
rate of change , its form would be
and would reach the steady-state value
after a time interval: which is the time
constant of the R-L series circuit.
(PSpice DC-EX-04)
(PSpice DC-EX-05)
(PSpice DC-EX-05a)
Remark
Theoretically, the transient state goes on for an infinitely
long time, the steady-state value is reached for
In practice, the transient state ends after a time of
It results that the transient state lasts for a relatively short
time after switch closure, the length of this time being of the
same order of magnitude as the time constant of the circuit.
L
E
t
i
t
0
0
d
d

( ) t
L
E
t i
0

( )
R
E
t i
p
0

R
L

( ) 4 3
t
( )

,
_

t
L
R
e
R
E
t i 1
0

Initially, the circuit is assumed to be open, then at time t = 0, the switch is closed.
The KVL is:
Transient state in the case of a capacitor (R-C series circuit)
Consider the circuit in the figure consisting of the series elements: a capacitor C,
a resistor R, a constant emf source E
0
and a switch. The total resistance of the
circuit (resistor, source and leads) is assumed equal to R.
0
0
d
1
E i R t i
C
t
+

KVL equation becomes:

Using relation:
t
u
C i
C
d
d
0
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
C
C
+

with the solution:
is a linear, non-homogenous differential equation (of first -
order) with constant coefficients.
The general solution is sought in form of a sum of the free and the steady-state
components of the voltage across the capacitor:
The free component is the solution of the homogenous equation, obtained by
setting its free term equal to zero:
The solution of this homogenous equation (containing only the circuit parameters)
has a form that is independent of external factors (sources). It is completely
determined from the initial conditions and is called the free solution (or free
component).
The characteristic equation of the homogenous equation is:
0
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
C
C
+
( ) ( ) ( ) t u t u t u
p C C C , ,
+

0
d
d
+
C
C
u
t
u
RC
0 1 + r C R
RC
r
1


The solution of the homogenous equation has the general expression:
where K is an integration constant which is to be determined from the initial
conditions that must be satisfied by the complete solution.
It can be seen that the free state is a damped process which gradually dies out
over time. This property is a characteristic of usual linear circuits whose parameters
R, L, C are all positive.
The steady-state component is a particular solution of the non-homogenous
equation: and it is called the forced solution since, its form is
determined by the time function, which is the free term of equation, determined by
the external conditions (sources).
Whatever this function is: a constant, an exponential, a sinusoid or a linear
combination of these functions, the forced solution is found in form of a time
function of the same kind as the free term, whose parameters are completely
determined by substitution in the equation and by identification.
Since the free term E
0
is a constant, we look for a constant solution , which,
replaced in the equation, leads to the equality U
0
= E
0
.
Consequently:
( )
t
RC
C
e K t u
1
,

0
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
C
C
+
( )
0 ,
U t u
p C

( )
0 ,
E t u
p C


The general solution of the equation will be:
( ) ( ) ( ) t u t u t u
p C C C , ,
+

0
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
C
C
+
The initial conditions are established as follows:
At the initial time, immediately after switch closure, at t = 0 + , (where is a
positive, arbitrarily small quantity), the voltage takes the initial value which must
be known to determine constant K.
Before switch closure, at time t = 0 - , the voltage across the capacitor is zero:
u
c
(0 ) = 0. The voltage across the capacitor cannot change abruptly since
this would imply infinitely high rates of change that are incompatible with the KVL
equation. Consequently, at t = 0 , the equality u
c
(0 ) = u
c
(0 + ), should be
true; which reduces to:
The arbitrary constant contained in the
expression of the general solution is determined
from the initial conditions.
yielding:
The solution of the transient
voltage across the capacitor
after closing the switch is:
or
( )
t
RC
C
e K t u
1
,

( )
0 ,
E t u
p C

( )
0
1
E e K t u
t
RC
C
+

0
0 E K +
0
E K
( )
0
1
0
E e E t u
t
RC
C
+

( )

,
_

t
RC
C
e E t u
1
0
1

Using the voltage variation graph, a characteristic
of the circuit, called the time constant can be
determined. The time constant can be defined as
the time during which the voltage could reach
its steady-state value, if its rate of change
would remain equal to the initial rate of
change.
If the transient solution would maintain its initial
rate of change , its form is
and would reach the steady-state value
after a time interval: which is the time
constant of the R-C series circuit.
(PSpice DC-EX-06)
(PSpice DC-EX-07)
(PSpice DC-EX-07a)
Remark
Theoretically, the transient state goes on for an infinitely
long time, the steady-state value is reached for
In practice, the transient state ends after a time of
It results that the transient state lasts for a relatively short
time after switch closure, the length of this time being of the
same order of magnitude as the time constant of the circuit.
( ) 4 3
t
( )

,
_

t
RC
C
e E t u
1
0
1
C R
E
t
u
t
C 0
0
d
d

( ) t
C R
E
t u
C
0

( )
0 ,
E t u
p C

C R

Initially, the circuit is assumed to be open, then at time t = 0, the switch is closed.
The KVL is:
Transient state for the R-L-C series circuit
Consider the circuit in the figure consisting of the series elements: a coil of
inductance L, a capacitor C, a resistor R, a constant emf source E
0
and a switch.
The total resistance of the circuit (resistor, source and leads) is assumed equal
to R.
KVL equation becomes:
Using:
t
u
C i
C
d
d

0
0
d
1
d
d
E i R t i
C t
i
L
t
+ +

0
2
2
d
d
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
t
u
LC
C
C C
+ +

is a linear, non-homogenous differential equation (of
second - order) with constant coefficients.
The general solution is sought in form of a sum of the free and the steady-state
components of the voltage across the capacitor:
( ) ( ) ( ) t u t u t u
p C C C , ,
+

0
2
2
d
d
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
t
u
LC
C
C C
+ +
The steady-state component is a particular solution of the non-homogenous
equation and it is called the forced solution since, its form is determined by the
time function, which is the free term of equation, determined by the external
conditions (sources).
Whatever this function is: a constant, an exponential, a sinusoid or a linear
combination of these functions, the forced solution is found in form of a time
function of the same kind as the free term, whose parameters are completely
determined by substitution in the equation and by identification.
Since the free term E
0
is a constant, we look for a constant solution , which,
replaced in the equation, leads to the equality U
0
= E
0
.
Consequently:
( )
0 ,
U t u
p C

( )
0 ,
E t u
p C


with the solutions:
The free component is the solution of the homogenous equation, obtained by
setting its free term equal to zero:
The solution of this homogenous equation (containing only the circuit parameters)
has a form that is independent of external factors (sources). It is completely
determined from the initial conditions and is called the free solution (or free
component).
The characteristic equation of the homogenous equation is:
0
d
d
d
d
2
2
+ +
C
C C
u
t
u
RC
t
u
LC
0 1
2
+ + r C R Cr L
LC L
R
L
R
r
1
2 2
2
2 , 1

,
_

t
where K
1
and K
2
are the integration constants which are to be determined
from the initial conditions, that should be satisfied by the complete solution .
Consequently, the solution of the homogenous equation will have the
general expression:
( )
t r t r
C
e K e K t u
2 1
2 1 ,
+

LC L
R
L
R
r
1
2 2
2
2 , 1

,
_

t
The free solution can have three distinctive forms, in terms of the
relationships between the circuit parameters R, L, C, which determine the
nature of the roots of the characteristic equation (the discriminant value):
Using the notations:
the attenuation coefficient
the self angular velocity
the solutions of the characteristic equation can be written in one of the following
forms:
or or
L
R
2

LC
1
0

p
j
2
0
2
2
0
2
2 , 1
t r t
2 , 1
r
p
j r t
2 , 1

1. Damped oscillation
For this case:
0
1
2
2 < < <
C L
L
R
C
L
R
LC L
R
L
R
r
1
2 2
2
2 , 1

,
_

t
L
R
2

LC
1
0

p
j
2
0
2
the characteristic equations has complex conjugate roots that can be
expressed by relation:
p
j r t
2 , 1
The free solution, with two arbitrary constants, can be written as:
or:
or:
( )
( ) ( ) t j t j
C
p p
e K e K t u
+
+
2 1 ,
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] t K K j t K K e t u
p p
t
C
+ +

sin cos
2 1 2 1 ,
( ) ( ) K t e A t u
p
t
C
+

sin
,

The arbitrary constants A and K , contained in the above general free solution,
are determined from the initial conditions, which are established as follows:
At the initial time instant, immediately after switch closure, at t = 0 + , the
voltage across the capacitor takes the initial value u
c
(0 + ), while the current
takes the initial value i(0 + ), their values must be known in order to determine
constants A and K in the above relation.
Before switch closure, at t = 0 - , the voltage across the capacitor was zero
u
c
(0 - ) = 0, and the current in the circuit was zero as well i(0 - ) = 0.
The voltage across the capacitor and the current in the circuit cannot
change abruptly, since this would imply infinite rates of change which are
incompatible with equation:
( ) ( ) K t e A t u
p
t
C
+

sin
,
The last condition entails that:
0
2
2
d
d
d
d
E u
t
u
RC
t
u
LC
C
C C
+ +
Consequently, at t = 0 , the following equalities should hold true:
( ) ( ) + 0 0
C C
u u
( ) ( ) + 0 0 i i
0
d
d
0

t
C
t
u

The figure presents the variation with time of the voltage across the capacitor
u
c
(t), as well as that of the current i (t), in the circuit. The plots illustrate a
damped oscillation with the exponential factor e
-t
, called pseudo-periodic
oscillation.
After determining the integration constants, we obtain the solution of the
transient voltage across the capacitor, subsequent to switch closure:
The current in the circuit has the expression:
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

t t e E t u
p p
p
t
C
cos sin 1
0
( ) t e
L
E
t
u
C t i
p
t
p
C

sin
d
d
0
(swf)

2 The critically damped (aperiodic case)
LC L
R
L
R
r
1
2 2
2
2 , 1

,
_

t
L
R
2

LC
1
0

p
j
2
0
2
In this case:
0
1
2
2
C L
L
R
C
L
R
the characteristic equation has two roots which are negative,
real and equal r
1,2
= - . The free solution, with two arbitrary
constants has the form:
The arbitrary constants contained in the general source-free solution are
determined from the previously established initial conditions :
( ) ( ) + 0 0
C C
u u ( ) ( ) + 0 0 i i
After determining the integration constants, we obtain the solution for the
transient voltage across the capacitor, after switch closure:
The current in the circuit will be:
( ) ( ) [ ] t e E t u
t
C
+

1 1
0
( ) t e E C
t
u
C t i
t C

2
0
d
d

The figure presents the variation with time of the voltage across the capacitor
u
c
(t), as well as that of the current i (t), in the circuit. The plots illustrate an
aperiodic variation.
is the lowest resistance at which the oscillations in the circuit die out.
C
L
R 2
(swf)

3 The overdamped case (aperiodic case)
LC L
R
L
R
r
1
2 2
2
2 , 1

,
_

t
L
R
2

LC
1
0

p
j
2
0
2
In this case:
the characteristic equation has two real roots r
1,2
= - .
The free solution, with two arbitrary constants has the form:
The arbitrary constants contained in the general source-free solution are
determined from the previously established initial conditions :
( ) ( ) + 0 0
C C
u u ( ) ( ) + 0 0 i i
After determining the integration constants, we obtain the solution for the
transient voltage across the capacitor, after switch closure:
or:
0
1
2
2 > > >
C L
L
R
C
L
R
( )
( ) ( ) t t
C
e K e K t u
+
+
2 1 ,
( )
1
]
1

,
_

t j t j
j
e E t u
t
C
cos sin 1
0
( )
1
]
1

,
_

t t e E t u
t
C
ch sh 1
0

The figure presents the variation with time of the voltage across the capacitor
u
c
(t), as well as that of the current i (t), in the circuit. The graphs illustrate an
aperiodic variation which is slower than that in the critically aperiodic case. The
higher the value of the resistance, the slower is the resulting variation.
(swf1) (PSpice DC-EX-08) (swf2) (PSpice DC-EX-09) (PSpice DC-EX-10)