A Major Project Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of The

Requirements For The Degree of Bachelor of

Technology
Under
BIJU PATNAIK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, ODISHA

Project Report on

The properties of fly ash in terms of geo-engineering

Under the guidance of

Asst. Prof NIRALI DAS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:-

DHANURJAYA SWAIN-2001324002

AKASHA NAHAK-2121324003

DEBASIS BARADA-2121324011

NITYANANDA KIRTANIA-2121324021

P ABHISHEK DORA-2121324023

(DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING)

GANDHI ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY AND

ENGINEERING
BERHAMPUR -761008, GANJAM,
ODISHA

2024
 GANDHI ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY AND
ENGINEERING BERHAMPUR
(Approved By AICTE New Delhi, Affiliated To BPUT,
Govt. of Odisha)

Ref. no- Date- 08/05/2024

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “The properties of fly

ash in terms of geo-engineering” being submitted by Dhanurjaya Swain-
2001324002, Akasha Nahak -2121324003, Debasis Barada-
2121324011, Nityananda Kirtania-2121324021, P Abhishek Dora-
2121324023 to the Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Odisha, for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in the Civil Engineering is a
bonafide project work carried out by him under our/my supervision. The
results presented in this project have not been submitted elsewhere for the
award of any other degree.

In our/my opinion, this work has reached the standard fulfilling the
requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
accordance with the regulations of the university.

Signature of Signature
of
Internal Examiner External
Examiner

Signature of HOD Signature of

Principal
Dept. Of Civil engineering
Dr.G.S.Mohapatro
GATE,
Berhampur
 DECLARATION

Major Project Title: The properties of fly ash in terms of geo-engineering

Degree for which the Major Project is submitted: FINAL YEAR PROJECT

We do hereby declare that the presented major project represents largely our own
ideas, work and words. Where others ideas or words have been included, we have
adequately cited and listed in the reference materials. The major project has been
prepared without resorting to plagiarism. We have adhered to all principles of
academic honesty and integrity. No falsified or fabricated data have been presented in
the project. We do understand that any violation of the above will cause for
disciplinary action by the institute and university, including revoking the conferred
degree, if conferred, and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have not
been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken.

DHANURJAYA SWAIN 2001324002

AKASHA NAHAK 2121324003

DEBASIS BARADA 2121324011

NITYANANDA KIRTANIA 2121324021

P ABHISHEK DORA 2121324023

NAME OF THE STUDENT: REGISTRATION NO:

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to my project guide Asst. Prof. Nirali Das (Dept. of Civil
Engineering) for providing valuable direction, inspirational considerations and
continuous supervision during the progression of this work being carried out
successfully.

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to our respected Head of Civil Engg.

Department Asst. Prof. Guru Prasad Patro, for his valuable guidance and
encouragement that has been absolutely helpful in successful completion of this
project work.

My sincere gratitude to The Principal of our institute Dr. G.S. Mohapatro for
his constantly supporting our goals which helped us to climb the ladder of success.

I extend my thankfulness to all the faculty members of Civil Engineering

department for their immense support during the project work and to all well-wishers
those who have contributed directly and indirectly for the completion of this work.

At last but not the least; I thank almighty and my parents for their blessings
without which the completion of this project would not have been possible.

DHANURJAYA SWAIN 2001324002

AKASHA NAHAK 2121324003

DEBASIS BARADA 2121324011

NITYANANDA KIRTANIA 2121324021

P ABHISHEK DORA 2121324023

NAME OF THE STUDENT: REGISTRATION NO:

SMART PARKING SYSTEM

Abstract
Automatic multistoried car parking system helps to minimize
the parking area. In the modern world where parking space has
become a very big problem, it has become very important to
avoid the wastage of space in modern big companies and
apartments etc. in places where more than 100 cars need to be
parked, this system proves to be useful in reducing wastage of
space.
This automatic car parking system enables the parking of
vehicles with occupancy status displaying before entry.
Whenever a vehicle is about to enter the parking slot, driver will
get to either parking slot is available is not and if available
which slot is vacant or full. If slot is full, LED will show red
color and if it is vacant, corresponding LED will show green
color. This system is very useful in multi-level parking system
as well as single level parking space.
History of multi storey car parking
A circa 1929 drawing shows a cross-section of a typical multi-
storey car park of that era, using the d'Humy Motoramp design.

The earliest known multi-storey car park was opened in May

1901 by City & Suburban Electric Carriage Company at 6
Denman Street, central London. The location had space for 100
vehicles over seven floors, totaling 19,000 square feet. The same
company opened a second location in 1902 for 230 vehicles.
The company specialized in the sale, storage, valeting and on-
demand delivery of electric vehicles that could travel about 40
miles and had a top speed of 20 miles per hour.

The earliest known multi-storey car park in the United States

was built in 1918 for the Hotel La Salle at 215 West Washington
Street in the West Loop area of downtown Chicago, Illinois. It
was designed by Holabird and Roche. The Hotel La Salle was
demolished in 1976, but the parking structure remained because
it had been designated as preliminary landmark status and the
structure was several blocks from the hotel. It was demolished
in 2005 after failing to receive landmark status from the city of
Chicago. A 49-storey apartment tower, 215 West, has taken its
place, also featuring a multi-tiered parking garage.
Design

Basement parking
A large, mostly enclosed multi-storey car park forms the base or
"pedestal" of two connected high rises. At nearly 20 stories and
over 200 feet (61 m), it is an exceptionally large car park that
comprises a significant portion of the building.

The inside of a multi-storey car park

Motorcycle parking inside a multi-storey car park

The movement of vehicles between floors can be affected by:

 interior ramps - the most common type

 exterior ramps - which may take the form of a circular ramp
(colloquially known as a 'whirley-gig' in America)
 vehicle lifts - the least common
 automated robot systems - combination of ramp and elevator

Where the car park is built on sloping land, it may be split-

level or have sloped parking.

Many car parks are independent buildings dedicated exclusively

to that use. The design loads for car parks are often less than the
office building they serve (50 psf versus 80 psf), leading to long
floor spans of 55–60 feet that permit cars to park in rows
without supporting columns in between. The most common
structural systems in the United States for these structures are
either prestressed concrete double-teefloor systems or post-
tensioned cast-in-place concrete floor systems.

In recent times, car parks built to serve residential and some

business properties have been built as part of a larger building,
often underground as part of the basement, such as at
the Atlantic Station redevelopment in Atlanta. This saves land
for other uses (as opposed to a parking lot), is cheaper and more
practical in most cases than a separate structure, and is hidden
from view. It protects customers and their cars from weather
such as rain, snow, or hot summer sunshine that raises a
vehicle's interior temperature to extremely high levels.
Underground parking of only two levels was considered an
innovative concept in 1964, when developer Louis
Lesser developed a two-level underground parking structure
under six 10-storey high-rise residential halls at California State
University, Los Angeles, which lacked space for horizontal
expansion in the 176-acre (0.71 km2) university. The simple
two-level parking structure was considered unusual enough in
1964 that a separate newspaper section entitled "Parking
Underground" described the garage as an innovative "concept"
and as "subterranean spaces".[9][10] In Toronto, a 2,400 space
parking lot below Nathan Phillips Square is one of the world's
largest.
Car parks which serve shopping centres can be built adjacent to
the centre for easier access at each floor between shops and
parking. One example is Mall of America in Bloomington,
Minnesota, USA, which has two large car parks attached to the
building, at the eastern and western ends. A common position
for car parks within shopping centres in the UK is on the roof,
around the various utility systems, enabling customers to take
lifts straight down into the centre. Examples of such are The
Oracle in Reading and Festival Place in Basingstoke.

These garages often have low ceiling clearances, which restrict

access by full-size vans and other large vehicles. On 15
December 2013, a man was killed during a robbery in the garage
at The Mall at Short Hills in Millburn, New Jersey. The
ambulance responding to the shooting was delayed because it
was too large to enter the garage.[11]

In the United States, costs for multi-storey parking structures are

estimated to cost between $25,000 per space, with underground
parking costing around $35,000 per space.

Structural integrity
Shuttered construction site of garage nearly two years after
partial structural failure

Parking structures are subjected to the heavy and shifting loads

of moving vehicles, and must bear the associated physical
stresses. Expansion joints are used between sections not only for
thermal expansion but to accommodate the flexing of the
structure's sections due to vehicle traffic. Seismic retrofits can
be applied where earthquakes are an issue.

Some parking structures have partly collapsed, either during

construction or years later. In July 2009 a fourth-floor section
failed at the Centergy building in midtown Atlanta, pancaking
down and destroying more than 30 vehicles but injuring no-one.
In December 2007, a car crashed into the wall of the deck at
the SouthPark Mall in Charlotte, North Carolina, weakening it
and causing a small collapse which destroyed two cars below.
On the same day, one under construction in Jacksonville,
Florida collapsed as concrete was being poured on the sixth
floor.[12] In November 2008, the sudden collapse of the middle
level of a deck in Montreal was preceded by warning signs some
weeks before, including cracks and water leaks. [13]Parking
structures are generally not subject to building inspections after
being checked for their initial occupancy permit.

In October 2012 four people were killed and nine more injured
when a parking structure under construction at a campus
of Miami-Dade College in Florida collapsed,[14] purportedly due
to an unfinished column.[15]

Precast parking structures

Precast parking structure showing an interior column, girders

and double-tee structural floors. The two gray circles are covers
to close the lifting anchor holes.
With the growth of multi-storey car parks since the middle of
the twentieth century, many constructions of such structures
have been using precast concrete to reduce the construction
time. The design involves putting parking structure parts
together. The parts of precast concrete include multi-storey
structural wall panels, interior and exterior columns, structural
floors, girders, wall panels, stairs and slabs. The precast concrete
parts are transported using flatbed semi-trailers to the sites. The
structural floor modules may need to be laid tilted during the
transportation in order to cover as large floor area as possible
while they can be easily transported on the roadways. The
modules are lifted using precast concrete lifting anchor
systems at the sites for assembly. Decorations may include using
of covers to close the holes in the precast concrete that contains
the lifting anchors, and installing facades to the exterior of the
structures.

In modern construction of the precast modules, there are other

features to improve the strength of the structure. An example is
to use prestressed strands on post-tensioned concrete for the
construction of the shear walls. Another example is the use
of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer to replace steel wire mesh to
lighten the load and yield more corrosion resistant especially for
the cold-climate areas which use salt for melting snow.[16]
Architectural value

The 1111 Lincoln Road parking garage

These structures are not usually known for their architectural

value. As Architectural Record has noted, "In the Pantheon of
Building Types, the parking garage lurks somewhere in the
vicinity of prisons and toll plazas. The New York Times has
labeled parking structures as "the grim afterthought of American
design".

A handful of parking garages have received considerable praise

for their design, including

 1111 Lincoln Road, in the South Beach section of Miami

Beach, Florida and designed by the internationally known
Swiss architectural firm of Herzog & de Meuron.
 The Brutalist Preston bus station in the United Kingdom,
which incorporates a multi-storey car park

Nomenclature

The term multistorey car park (often abbreviated

to multistorey or multistory) is used in the United Kingdom,
Hong Kong, and many Commonwealth of Nations countries,
and it is nowadays most commonly spelled without a hyphen. In
the western United States, the term parking structure is
used, especially when it is necessary to distinguish such a
structure from the "garage" connected with a house. In some
places in North America, "parking garage" refers only to an
indoor, often underground, structure. Outdoor, multi-level
parking facilities are referred to by a number of regional terms:

 Parking garage is used, to varying degrees, throughout the

U.S.; and rarely, in Canada as well often referring to
underground parking, and professionally by civil engineers;
 Parking deck is used mostly in the Southern United States.
 Parking ramp is used in the upper Midwest,
especially Minnesota and Wisconsin, and has been observed
as far east as Buffalo, New York.
 Parkade is widely used in West Canada and South Africa
 Parking building is used in New Zealand.

Architects and civil engineers in the USA are likely to call it

a parking structure since their work is all about structures and
since that term is the vernacular in some of the western United
States. When attached to a high-rise of another use, it is
sometimes called a parking podium.[21] United States building
codes use the term open parking garage to refer to a structure
designed for car storage that has openings along at least 40% of
the perimeter, as opposed to an enclosed parking garage that
requires mechanical ventilation. Natural or mechanical
ventilation provides fresh air flow to disperse car exhaust in
normal conditions, or hot gas and smoke in case of fire.

Typically car park experts describe the number of car park

floors in terms of "G+x". G stands for ground and x for the
number of floors above ground. For example, G+5 is a multi-
story car park structure with a ground floor and 5 floors above
that, i.e. a total of 6 floors.

Construction types

 Concrete
 Steel structure
 Automated (mechanical)

Steel structure

Structure car parks are car parks made of structural steel

components connected to each other to carry the loads and
provide full structural rigidity.
Steel is a high-strength material requiring less material than
other types of structures like concrete and timber. Steel
construction features:

 Cost savings: inexpensive to manufacture and erect, and

requires less maintenance than traditional building methods.
 Speed: Allows construction/prefabrication off-site with rapid
installation on-site. Some suppliers claim construction in
days.
 Durability: Suppliers claim 50-plus years lifespan.
 Removability: Steel car park structure could be designed to
be removed at a later date.
 Expandability: Steel car park structures can be expanded
easily at a later date.
 Creativity: Steel allows for long column-free spans.

The ceiling slab of the steel structure car park is typically made
of composite material such as corrugated steel sheets and
concrete. The surface of the first-floor parking can be left bare
or covered with epoxy or tarmac.

Foundationless and modular

Demand, steel features, and innovation have led to the

development of a foundationless, modular, removable steel car
park structure.

Parking demand often grows quickly, significantly and

sometimes unexpectedly. Modular steel car parks could be the
proper solution if the surface area available is not sufficient and
can be expanded upwards, or whenever it is not feasible to build
up a multi-story parking. The development of the building
concept of modular car parks came about by using the modular
assembling method of vertical and horizontal elements (such as
columns and beams) Modular car park structures are versatile
and can be built in phases or in different sizes and shape. The
solution makes it possible to develop a parking structure even in
case of particular conditions or constraints, such as
archaeological sites or city centres, because it allows:

 To virtually double the parking surface without leaving any

footprint on the ground, as no settlement for excavations or
traditional foundations is needed;
 To double the parking surface by means of a light steel
single-deck car park system.
 Prefab modular components of the system make each project
versatile and suitable for both large and small sized areas.

These parking structures are generally demountable and can be

relocated to avoid making the choice of converting a surface to
parking area irrevocably. They could be used as permanent
structures or are conceived as temporary parking facilities for
temporary parking demand needs. A number of parking decks
have been demounted after a few years – to make room for the
development of a permanent structure - and relocated to respond
to local parking demand.

Automated parking
Main article: Automated parking system
Not to be confused with Automatic parking, a self-parking
feature in a car.

Automatic underground car storage in Thessaloniki, Greece

The earliest use of an automated parking system (APS) was in

Paris in 1905 at the Garage Rue de Ponthieu. The APS consisted
of a groundbreaking multi-story concrete structure with an
internal elevator to transport cars to upper levels where
attendants parked the cars. A 1931 Popular Mechanics article
speculated an underground garage where the car was taken to a
parking area by a conveyor then an elevator to shuttles mounted
on rails.
The total cost of ownership of automated car parks needs to be
carefully considered.

The actual cost of construction of automated car parks is

typically higher than conventional car park structures, however,
this can be offset by the higher space efficiency of automated
car parks. The cost of the mechanical equipment needed to
transport the cars needs to be added to the building cost. In
addition, operation and maintenance costs of the mechanical
equipment need to be added in order to determine the total cost
of ownership. Other costs could be saved, for example, there is
no need for an energy-intensive ventilating system, since cars
are not driven inside and human cashiers or security personnel
may not be needed. For naturally ventilated car parks structures,
the ventilation equipment is not needed.

Automated car parks rely on similar technology to that used for

mechanical handling and document retrieval. The driver leaves
the car in an entrance module, and it is then transported to a
parking slot by a robotic trolley. For the driver, the process of
parking is reduced to leaving the car inside an entrance module.

At peak periods a wait may occur before entering or leaving,

because loading passengers and luggage occurs at the entrance
and exit rather than at the parking stall. This loading blocks the
entrance or exit from being available to others. It is generally
not recommended to use automated car parks for high peak hour
volume facilities.

Additional factors that need to be taken into consideration are:

 Fear of breakdowns (How does the user get the car back)
 Maintenance contracts needed with suppliers

Other technologies
Parking guidance and information and Parking lot

Ultrasonic sensors above each lot in this indoor car park

determine if a car has already taken the lot and indicate
using LEDs; and some can send a Bluetooth/SMS message with
the parking space number or code.

Modern parking lots utilize a variety of technologies to help

motorists find unoccupied parking spaces, car location when
returning to the vehicle and improve their experience. This
includes adaptive lighting, sensors and parking space LED
indicators (red for occupied, green for available and blue is
reserved for the disabled; above every parking space), indoor
positioning system (IPS), including QR code, and mobile
payment options. The Santa Monica Place shopping mall in
California has cameras on each stall that can help count the lot
occupancy and find lost cars.[27]

Online booking technology service providers have been created

to helped drivers find long-term parking in an automated
manner, while also providing significant savings for those who
book parking spaces ahead of time. They use real-time inventory
management checking technology to display parking lots with
availability, sorted by price and distance from the airport.

Electronics Components

Interfacing with switches (keypad):

Interfacing with keypad makes instrument menu driven user
friendly. This will help to the user to select the maximum
capacity of the parking area.
Display unit (LCD)
LCD makes this instrument user friendly by displaying
everything on the display. It is an intelligent LCD module, as it
has inbuilt controller which convert the alphabet and digit into
its ASCII code and then display it by its own i.e. we do not
required to specify which LCD combination must glow for a
particular alphabet or digit.

Stepper Motor:
Stepper motor is used to open and close the door. It is interfaced
with microcontroller and takes command from the
microcontroller to rotate some particular specified angle. It can
be interfaced with MCU as shown below:

OPTOISOLATOR
IC (MCT- 2E)

POWER AMPLIFIER
USING BC369
TRANSISTOR

Motor Winding

The switching circuit is comprises of an optocoupler which will

isolate the controller from the outer spikes or fluctuations or
from the external hardware and at the same time it drives a
power transistor i.e. make it on when a signal from the
controller pin is applied to it. Optocoupler actually comprises of
a diode and a phototransistor. It comes in a DIP IC package.
Thus signal from the MCU is given to the LED part or the
driving part. When LED begins to glow then the phototransistor
acts as on switch or short circuit. This output is given to power
transistor, which will amplify the current of the signal and then
use it to drive winding of the Motor. Ground is directly given to
the common of the Motor. And +vcc is provided to the motor
winding through the amplifier.

If user wants to switch ON the Motor winding, then the

microcontroller is sending a signal to the optocoupler then
ultimately that supply to that winding is ON. Reverse is the case
when MCU does not send any signal and thus, supply to that
winding is OFF.

Intruder:

The 555 timer is used in the Infrared transmitters and receivers.

At the transmitter it is used to produce a pulse of 38 kHz. This
pulse is then fed to the Infrared LED so that it produces bursts
of Infrared energy at the rate of 38 kHz. The reason of
transmitting frequency being this much particular value is that
the Infrared receiver (i.e. TSOP 1738) works at maximum
efficiency when the Infrared rays falling on it, are of 38 kHz. At
the receiver the 555 timer is used to pass the output of the
Infrared receiver to the microcontroller. We are using the 555
timer in mono- stable operation where one external resistor and
capacitor control the pulse width. The 555 timer has a number of
features. When there is a person between receiver and
transmitter then the trigger pin gets low due to which at the
output pin of timer we get a high pulse. This high pulse is
applied to the pin of microcontroller which in turn senses this
pin and activates the next task.
INTRUDER SENSOR
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P H O TO D I O D E TO MICROCONTROLLER GROUND

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BC 547 3 TO MICROCONTROLLER PORT 2.1
4
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R1-100K, R2-1K, R3-470E, R4-47K R ELAY SPD T

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Entrance or Exit Detector:

The entrance or the exit of a person in the room is detected by
using two infrared modules. Each module will contain an IR
transmitter and an IR receiver. Before the door the Infrared
transmitter is mounted on one side and the receiver is placed
directly in front of the transmitter on the other side of door.
Infrared transmitter will continuously transmit IR waves and the
receiver will continuously receive IR waves. The IR transmitter
will use an IR LED. This LED can transmit IR whenever it is
supplied from a 5-volt voltage source. The receiver can either be
photodiode if the width of the door is less or a special IR
receiver known as the IR eye. Now whether a person enters or
exits, the beam of each module will be interrupted that is the
output from the two receivers which actually is the pulse output
from two different monostable multivibrator using 555 timers.
Thus the outputs from the two receivers are in the form of pulse.

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR IR RECEIVER

O/P TO MCU PHOTODIODE OUTPUT

555 TIMER
IR INPUT

POWER
SUPPLY

At the receiver side the IR eye or the IR demodulator will

demodulate the IR signal and then give its output to the trigger
of a 555 timer, which is mounted as a monostable vibrator. Thus
whenever there is an interrupt in the IR beam then
corresponding trigger will go from high to low thus the output
from the 555 timer will be a pulse which is then generated as in
monostable mode by applying a –ve voltage at the trigger a
pulse is generated.

Features of the Project:

 Powered by +5V & +12V supply
 Current consumption 0.45mA for Microcontroller circuit,
0.75mA for switching circuit, 200mA for amplification
circuit
 Automatic detection of any incoming/outgoing car
 Automatic opening and closing of entry gate
 User interface using LCD and switches
 Always display the number of cars present in the Parking
Lot
Various Components used in various Modules of the Project
along with specifications and quantity:
Power Supply Unit1 (+5V):

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed 1
2. Transformer 9-0-9, 500mA 1
3. Diode 1N4007 4
4. Cap. 1000 µF 1
5. Regulator 7805 1
Power Supply Unit2 (+12V):

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed 1
2. Transformer 9-0-9, 500mA 1
3. Diode 1N4007 4
4. Cap. 1000 µF 1
5. Regulator 7812 1

Microcontroller Unit:

S. Component Specification Qty.

No.
1. PCB Designed 1
2. Base 40 Pin 1
3. Crystal 11.0592MHZ 1
4. Cap. 33 PF 2
10µF 1
5. MCU AT89s52 1
6. Micro switch 1
7. Resistance 10K Ω 1

LCD Module:

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. LCD Connector 16 Pin 1
2. LCD 16 x 2 1

Keypad Module (For input to MCU):

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB G.P.PCB 1
2. Micro 2 Pin 3
Switches

Intruder Module1 (For Entry gate):

S. Component Specification Qty.

No.
1. PCB Designed 1
2. Base 8 Pin 1
3. IC Timer 555 1
4. Resistance 10K Ω 1
470 Ω 1
100K 1
5. IR Pair 1
6. Capacitor 10µF 1
103 (0.01 1
µF)
Intruder Module2 (For Exit gate):

S. Component Specification Qty.

No.
1. PCB Designed 1
2. Base 8 Pin 1
3. IC Timer 555 1
4. Resistance 10K Ω 1
470 Ω 1
100K 1
5. IR Pair 1
6. Capacitor 10µF 1
103 (0.01 1
µF)

Motor Driver Card:

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed 1
General 1
2. Base 6 Pin 4
3. Opto coupler 817 4
4. Resistance 470Ω 4
5. Transistor 369 4
6. Stepper Motor 12V 1
Detailed Hardware Description:

POWER SUPPLY
Power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can be broken down into a series of
blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the block has its own function as described below

1. Transformer – steps down high voltage AC mains to low
voltage AC.
2. Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is
varying.
3. Smoothing – smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a
small ripple.
4. Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a
fixed voltage.
TRANSFORMER
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another
with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and
this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. The two
types of transformers
 Step-up transformers increase voltage,
 Step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Transformer
Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to
reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to
a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and
the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are
linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-
iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the
circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is
(almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped
down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on
each coil, called the turn ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns
on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high
voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Turns ratio = Vp = Np
Vs Ns

And Power Out = Power In

 Vs  Is = Vp  Ip

Where
Vp = primary (input) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil

Is = secondary (output) current

Vs = secondary (output) voltage

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but

it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes
required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all AC
wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in
the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when
conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as
shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the
maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse
voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times
the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak
voltages). In this alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing
over the connections so the alternating directions of AC are
converted to the one direction of DC.
OUTPUT – Full-wave Varying DC

SMOOTHING
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor
connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying
current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the
rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying
DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The
capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and
then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC

voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value). For
example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about
4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with
smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving
1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a
little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many
circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is
satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for
the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give fewer
ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing
half-wave DC.
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = 5 × Io
Vs × f

Where

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of
the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in
the UK

REGULATOR
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12
and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the
maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are
available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators
include some automatic protection from excessive current
(‘overload protection') and overheating (‘thermal protection').
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look
like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator
shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heat sink
if necessary.

Working of Power Supply

 Transformer
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and
special AC motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless
they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

 Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and

standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless
they include a smoothing capacitor.
 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most
electronic circuits.

 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

D1 LM7805
1N4007 +5V
1 2
VIN VO U T

GND
J1 D2 1000uf
3
2 gnd C1

3
1 V
D3

D4

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is

suitable for all electronic circuits.

The Microcontroller:

In our day to day life the role of micro-controllers has been

immense. They are used in a variety of applications ranging
from home appliances, FAX machines, Video games, Camera,
Exercise equipment, Cellular phones musical Instruments to
Computers, engine control, aeronautics, security systems and the
list goes on.

Microcontroller versus Microprocessors:

What is the difference between a microprocessor and
microcontroller? The microprocessors (such as 8086, 80286,
68000 etc.) contain no RAM, no ROM and no I/O ports on the
chip itself. For this reason they are referred as general- purpose
microprocessors. A system designer using general- purpose
microprocessor must add external RAM, ROM, I/O ports and
timers to make them functional. Although the addition of
external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports make the system bulkier
and much more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility
such that the designer can decide on the amount of RAM, ROM
and I/o ports needed to fit the task at hand. This is the not the
case with microcontrollers. A microcontroller has a CPU (a
microprocessor) in addition to the fixed amount of RAM, ROM,
I/O ports, and timers are all embedded together on the chip:
therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O, or
timer to it. The fixed amount of on chip RAM, ROM, and
number of I/O ports in microcontrollers make them ideal for
many applications in which cost and space are critical. In many
applications, for example a TV remote control, there is no need
for the computing power of a 486 or even a 8086
microprocessor. In many applications, the space it takes, the
power it consumes, and the price per unit are much more critical
considerations than the computing power. These applications
most often require some I/O operations to read signals and turn
on and off certain bits. It is interesting to know that some
microcontroller’s manufactures have gone as far as integrating
an ADC and other peripherals into the microcontrollers.

Microcontrollers for Embedded Systems:

In the literature discussing microprocessors, we often see a term

embedded system. Microprocessors and microcontrollers are
widely used in embedded system products. An embedded
product uses a microprocessor (or microcontroller) to do one
task and one task only. A printer is an example of embedded
system since the processor inside it performs one task only:
namely, get data and print it. Contrasting this with a IBM PC
which can be used for a number of applications such as word
processor, print server, network server, video game player, or
internet terminal. Software for a variety of applications can be
loaded and run. Of course the reason a PC can perform myriad
tasks is that it has RAM memory and an operating system that
loads the application software into RAM and lets the CPU run it.
In an embedded system, there is only one application software
that is burned into ROM. A PC contains or is connected to
various embedded products such as the keyboard, printer,
modem, disk controller, sound card, CD-ROM driver, mouse
and so on. Each one of these peripherals has a microcontroller
inside it that performs only one task. For example, inside every
mouse there is a microcontroller to perform the task of finding
the mouse position and sending it to the PC.
 Although microcontrollers are the preferred choice for many
embedded systems, there are times that a microcontroller is
inadequate for the task. For this reason, in many years the
manufacturers for general-purpose microprocessors have
targeted their microprocessor for the high end of the embedded
market.

Introduction to 8051:

In 1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8-bit microcontroller

called the 8051. This microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM,
4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port, and four
ports (8-bit) all on a single chip. The 8051 is an 8-bit processor,
meaning the CPU can work on only 8- bit pieces to be processed
by the CPU. The 8051 has a total of four I/O ports, each 8- bit
wide. Although 8051 can have a maximum of 64K bytes of on-
chip ROM, many manufacturers put only 4K bytes on the chip.

The 8051 became widely popular after

Intel allowed other manufacturers to make any flavor of the
8051 they please with the condition that they remain code
compatible with the 8051. This has led to many versions of the
8051 with different speeds and amount of on-chip ROM
marketed by more than half a dozen manufacturers. It is
important to know that although there are different flavors of the
8051, they are all compatible with the original 8051 as far as the
instructions are concerned. This means that if you write your
program for one, it will run on any one of them regardless of the
manufacturer. The major 8051 manufacturers are Intel, Atmel,
Dallas Semiconductors, Philips Corporation, Infineon.

AT89C51 From ATMEL Corporation:

This popular 8051 chip has on-chip ROM in the form of flash
memory. This is ideal for fast development since flash memory
can be erased in seconds compared to twenty minutes or more
needed for the earlier versions of the 8051. To use the AT89C51
to develop a microcontroller-based system requires a ROM
burner that supports flash memory: However, a ROM eraser is
not needed. Notice that in flash memory you must erase the
entire contents of ROM in order to program it again. The PROM
burner does this erasing of flash itself and this is why a separate
burner is not needed. To eliminate the need for a PROM burner
Atmel is working on a version of the AT89C51 that can be
programmed by the serial COM port of the PC.

Atmel Microcontroller AT89C51

Hardware features

 40 pin Ic.
 4 Kbytes of Flash.
 128 Bytes of RAM.
 32 I/O lines.
 Two16-Bit Timer/Counters.
 Five Vector.
 Two-Level Interrupt Architecture.
 Full Duplex Serial Port.
 On Chip Oscillator and Clock Circuitry.

Software features

 Bit Manipulations
 Single Instruction Manipulation
 Separate Program And Data Memory
 4 Bank Of Temporary Registers
 Direct, Indirect, Register and Relative Addressing.

In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for

operation down to zero frequency and supports two software
selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU
while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power Down
Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator
disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

The Atmel Flash devices are ideal for developing, since they can
be reprogrammed easy and fast. If we need more code space for
our application, particularly for developing 89Cxx projects with
C language. Atmel offers a broad range of microcontrollers
based on the 8051 architecture, with on-chip Flash program
memory.
Interal Architecture of AT89C51

Pin description:
The 89C51 have a total of 40 pins that are dedicated for various
functions such as I/O, RD, WR, address and interrupts. Out of
40 pins, a total of 32 pins are set aside for the four ports P0, P1,
P2, and P3, where each port takes 8 pins. The rest of the pins are
designated as Vcc, GND, XTAL1, XTAL, RST, EA, and PSEN.
All these pins except PSEN and ALE are used by all members
of the 8051 and 8031 families. In other words, they must be
connected in order for the system to work, regardless of whether

the microcontroller is of the 8051 or the 8031 family. The other

two pins, PSEN and ALE are used mainly in 8031 based
systems.

Vcc

Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage

source is +5V.
ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-STORY CAR PARKING:-
Any like Newyork, Delhi, London has over five million cars and
two-wheelers on its roads, but not enough parking spaces. The
demand for parking space has, on an average in the main
markets of Delhi, outstripped demand by 43 per cent. It is not
just a problem of Delhi or Mumbai; all the big cities in India are
facing the space crunch. Parking space is fast becoming a major
issue in other cities like Kolkata, Bangalore, Hyderabad,
Ahmedabad, Chandigarh, Pune and other urban and semi-urban
cities.
Multi-storey car parks provide lower building cost per parking
slot, as they typically require less building volume and less
ground area than a conventional facility with the same capacity.
A multi-storey car parks offer greatest possible flexibility for the
realization of optimum parking solution. Time-saving vertical
and horizontal movements take place simultaneously ensuring
fast parking and retrieval times.
DISADVANTAGES OF MULTI-STORY CAR PARKING:-
Drivers who use multi-story parking facilities, sometimes
known as parking garages, often enjoy a number of benefits the
structures provide. Despite the ability of the garages to house a
large number of cars, multi-story parking facilities also carry a
number of distinct disadvantages that arise from their tall,
enclosed and often dimly lit nature.
1.Deterioration and Maintenance
Multi-story parking facilities support hundreds of thousands of
pounds of vehicles, people and equipment every day. Because
the garages support very large amounts of weight and loads that
constantly change, the structures quickly deteriorate in the
absence of constant maintenance activity. In addition, according
to Canada’s National Resource Council, changing weather and
environmental conditions can deteriorate a garage’s steel
support structure, creating an unsafe environment for garage
users. A number of corrosion inhibitors can help delay processes
that eat away at the structure’s integrity, according to the
National Resource Council, but constant maintenance and
upkeep must include anti-corrosion measures to keep multi-
story parking facilities structurally sound.

2.Parking Angle Considerations

Because many drivers of varying levels of skills and experience
drive in, around and out of parking garages every day, designers
must pay special attention to the configuration of parking spaces
within the structures. In a municipal parking garage presentation
prepared by architects Sakri and Khairuddin, the designers noted
that two-way traffic flow in a multi-story garage presents a
number of parking challenges for drivers and designers. Parallel
parking, for example, creates an inefficient use of limited space,
while straight parking spaces make parking difficult for some
drivers. Other options, like angled parking, do not work well
with a two-way traffic flow and can only work well in garages
with separate entrance and exit openings.

3.Lighting
While most parking lots open at night, multi-story or otherwise,
require some form of lighting, the multi-story nature of parking
garages creates a need for numerous lights throughout the
structure. In addition, because the inside of the structure may
remain dark even during the day, many of these lights must run
at all times. This arrangement can create high energy bills for
garage owners and may require frequent lighting maintenance to
replace broken or burned-out bulbs.

4.Safety
Because multi-story parking facilities allow limited natural light
inside, some security experts express concern about safety
inside the structures. In their municipal presentation, architects
Sakri and Khairuddin recommend security devices that directly
connect to local police or public safety stations. In addition, the
architects explicitly describe a need to reduce dark places where
criminals may hide. Even with security measures in place,
though, criminals still seem to thrive in multi-story parking
structures; in a 2009 article in the Chicago Sun-Times, one
parking garage user expressed frustration after experiencing
three burglaries within two years.
CONCLUSION

I would like to conclude this project as a very great and

enriching experience.
During the project labs I familiarized myself with P.C.B
designing, application of I.C. (its pin diagram), mounting of
components using soldering process and interfacing of the
hardware circuit with the computer.
The circuit can be used at all places starting from domestic to
the industrial sectors. The simplicity in the usage of this circuit
helps it to be used by a large number of people as people with
less knowledge of hardware can also use it without facing any
problem. The
I also learned about the engg. Responsibility and about their
hard work. This project was not only good for personality
development but also great in terms of imparting practical
knowledge.
Thus I conclude our project with a very nice and wonderful
experience