Example 1:
For the sample system shown the generators are
reconnected at all the four buses, while loads are at buses 2
and 3. Values of real and reactive powers are listed in Table
6.3. All buses other than the slack are PQ type.
Assuming a flat voltage start, find the voltages and bus angles
at the three buses at the end of the first GS iteration.
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Solution:
The YBUS for the sample system has been calculated earlier in Example 6.2b
(i.e. the dotted line is assumed to be connected). In order to approach the
accuracy of a digital computer, the computations given below have been
performed on an electronic calculator.
Bus voltages at the end of the first iteration are calculated using Eq. (6.45).
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Example 2:
In Example 1,let bus 2 be a PV bus now with |V2|=1.04 pu.
Once again assuming a flat voltage start, find Q2 ,δ2 , V3, V4 at the
end of the first GS iteration.
Solution:
Given: 0.2 ≤ Q2 ≤ 1.
Calculate Q2: (Assume δ20 = 0, i.e. V20 =1.04 + j0)
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Now, Suppose the permissible limits on Q2 (reactive
Power injection) are revised as follows:
0.25 ≤ Q2 ≤ 1.0 pu
It is clear, that other data remaining the same, the calculated
Q2 (= 0.2079) is now less than the Q2 , min. Hence Q2 , is set
equal to Q2 , min , i.e.
Q2 = 0.25 pu
Bus 2, therefore, becomes a PQ bus from a PV bus.
Therefore, |V2| can no longer remain fixed at 1.04 pu. The
value of V2 are the end of the first iteration is calculated as
follows. (Note V20 = 1 + j0 by virtue of a flat start.)
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Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
The Newton-Raphson method is a powerful method of
solving non-linear algebraic equations.
It works faster and is sure to converge in most cases as
compared to the GS method.
It is indeed the practical method of load flow solution of
large power networks.
Its only drawback is the large requirement of computer
memory which has been overcome through a compact
storage scheme
Convergence can be considerably speeded up by
performing the first iteration through the GS method and
using the values so obtained for starting the NR iterations.
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Before explaining how the NR method is applied to solve load
flow problem, it is useful to review the method in its general
form.
Consider a set of n non-linear algebraic equations
Assume initial values of unknowns as x10 , x20 ,…...,
xn0. Let x10 ,x20 ,…….,xn0 be the corrections, which
on being added to the initial guess, give the actual
solution.
Therefore:
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Expanding these equations in Taylor series around the initial
guess, we have
Where are the derivatives
of fi with respect to x1 , x2 ,……, xn evaluated at (x10 , x20 ,…,xn0 )
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Neglecting higher order terms we can write the equation
in matrix form:
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Or in vector form
J0 is known as the Jacobian matrix (obtained by
differentiating the function vector with respect to x and
evaluating it at x0) .
This can be written as:
Approximate values of corrections x0 can be obtained from
the above equation. These being a set of linear algebraic
equations can be solved and the updated values of x are then
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The n x n matrix j is referred to as jacobian.
All algorithm are obviously necessitates the need of
inverting an n x n in each iteration.
All elements are partial derivatives
The N-R algorithm applied to the PFE.
• Whereas the G-S algorithm could be applied to the complex form
of the PFE’s, this is not possible in the present case.
• Some of the required partial derivatives of complex variables do
not exist. We must therefore make use of the real versions of the
PFE.
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A) Solution for load bus:
•At this time we also make the temporary assumption that
all buses, except bus 1, are of “load” type.
• Our unknowns thus consist of the n -1 voltage phasors V2
,…..,V3 which in terms of real variables means n – 1
voltage angles δ2 ,….., δn and n -1 voltage magnitudes
|V2|,……, |Vn|.
• Our initial guess thus can be assembled in the
(2n-2) - dimensional state vector
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By expanding fip and fiq in Taylor series around the initial
guess we obtain from Equations.
fip0 and fiq0 represent the real and reactive powers leaving bus i
if the bus voltages are set at guessed values. The difference
powers
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Thus represent the real and reactive bus-power
“mismatches” at the bus i.
We can write Equations as follows:
If the (2n-2) - dimensional vector of power mismatches is
symbolized u0
We can write Equations in the more compact form:
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The computation of the bus voltages would now proceed as
follows:
Step 1: Guess at an initial voltage state vector x0
Step 2: Compute the bus power mismatches u0 using the above
equations.
Step 3: Compute and assemble the jacobian
matrix j0
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Step 4: Solve the voltage error vector by inverting
the above equation.
Step 5: Add the voltage errors to the initial guess to
obtain an upgraded state vector.
Step 6 : Repeat the above steps, etc.
When using the G-S algorithm we found it natural to use the
voltage error as a convergence measure. Now the power
mismatches, real and reactive, will better serve this purpose.
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Example 1:
use the N-R algorithm to compute the PFE’s. We recall that
bus 2 is a “load bus” with the specified bus powers.
The reference bus has the specified voltage |V1| = 1.05 pu.
Solution:
We must now solve simultaneously the second and second and
fourth equations for the two unknowns |V2| and δ2.
The jacobian matrix is of dimension 2 x 2 and
contains the four partial derivatives.
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These derivatives are:
Here follow the computational steps
Step 1: Select the same initial guess as an example 7-7, that is
V20 = 0.95 ∟-13.5°
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Step 2: Find the bus Power mismatch.
Step 3: Compute the jacobian.
and its inverse
Step 4: Find x0
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Step 5: Find updated state vector.
The corresponding power mismatch equals.
Repeated computations yield the state vectors
And the power mismatches
In summary, in three iterations we have converged upon the solution
Which is in agreement with Example 7.7
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Accounting for voltage controlled buses
For every bus where the voltage magnitude is a prior
specified, the voltage error |Vi| is zero and the corresponding
row in equation (7-79) can be eliminated. Each voltage control
bus thus reduces the dimension of the jacobian by one unit. As the
reactive generation is unknown at all such buses, it must be
computed from eq.(7-48).
Example 2:
Rework Example 7-8 by use of the N-R algorithm. We recall that
the specified bus voltages are
The load demand at bus 2 equals
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Solution: The dimensionality of the jacobian will be 4 - 2- 1=1,
i.e. it is a scalar
We demonstrate the computational steps starting with the same initial
guess as in Example 7-8, that is, V20 = 1.0 ∟-10° pu.
Step 1: δ20 = -10° = -0.174533 rad
Step 2: Compute QG20 from Eq.(7-48)
Step 3: Find the power mismatch P2
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Step 4: Compute jacobian.
And its inverse
Step 5: Find
Step 6: Find updated state
Two more iterations yield
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This is the same result we obtained in Example 7-8. The
corresponding power-flow picture was shown in fig. 7-9.
Note the need for computing the reactive generation in each
iteration. Should the computations reveal that the reactive –
power need exceeds the source capacity then, from that iteration
on, QG2 must be fixed at the limit value. The bus now becomes a
load bus, with both δ2 and |V2| unknowns. The computations
then would be performed as in Example 7-10.
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