40 1729

Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 17291751
www.elsevier.com/locate/nel
A spectral nite element for wave propagation and structural
diagnostic analysis of composite beam with transverse crack
D. Sreekanth Kumar, D. Roy Mahapatra, S. Gopalakrishnan
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India

Received 12 March 2003; accepted 16 January 2004
Abstract
A spectral nite element with embedded transverse crack is developed and implemented to simulate the di-
agnostic wave scattering in composite beams with various forms of transverse crack, such as surface-breaking
cracks, matrix cracking and ber fracture. The cracked region is discretized into few internal elements,
which are modeled as one-dimensional (1D) waveguides. First-order shear deformable kinematics in each
of these waveguides is assumed. Appropriate displacement continuity at the element-internal waveguides are
enforced. The equilibrium equations are represented using compact matrix notations. After assembly of the
element-internal system of waveguides, the internal nodes are condensed out and nally a two-node nite
element in frequency domain is obtained. Using this element, namely a single transverse crack is modeled
through only three input parameters, the span-wise crack location and the thickness-wise locations of the
crack-tips. Although, the proposed element is not suited for dynamic fracture analysis at the local level, it
is best suited for narrow-band as well as broad-band wave-based diagnostic simulations for structural health
monitoring applications. Numerical simulations and comparison with detail 2D nite element prediction show
highly ecient performance of the proposed element to predict the crack location and overall trends due to
various crack congurations. Important conclusions are drawn on the advantages of the proposed approach,
limitations of the element and further scope of improved diagnostic analysis of cracked beam.
? 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Spectral element; FFT; Transverse crack; Laminated composite; Waveguide; Wavenumber; Diagnostics;
Sensitivity; Damage force; Identication
1. Introduction
Surface-breaking cracks in metallic structures, matrix cracking and ber fracture in laminated
composite structures are considered to be the most severe mode of damage. The objective of this
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-80-309-2757; fax: +91-80-360-0134.

E-mail address: krishnan@aero.iisc.ernet.in (S. Gopalakrishnan).
0168-874X/$ - see front matter ? 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.nel.2004.01.001
1730 D. Sreekanth Kumar et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 17291751
paper is to develop a Spectral Finite Element Model (SFEM) to eciently capture the behavior of
such transverse cracks during wave-based diagnostics, which can be used to improve the capability
of the available structural health monitoring (SHM) software.
The structural diagnostic analysis of cracked structure can have two main objectives, one at a time
or simultaneously.
The rst objective is to analyze the diagnostic signal (single or multi-frequency waveforms) when
it gets scattered due to the existing cracks in the structure, and then to identify the crack conguration
using this scattered signal. The overall complexity may involve damage diagnostic Levels 13 [1,2].
As mentioned in these papers, Level 1 involves the detection of the existence of the damaged site;
Level 2 involves Level 1 plus determination of damage location and size; Level 3 involves Level 2
plus quantication of severity of damage.
The second objective is to analyze the stress waves generated from the damage source during
its formation. Damage initiation and progression in the form of matrix cracking, ber fracture and
delamination have been under immense research. Matrix cracking, which is regarded as the primary
and initial mode of damage in composite, causes stiness degradation [3]. The associated problem of
determining the eective constitutive model has been investigated by many researchers (e.g. Aveston
and Kelly [4] and Hahn and Tsai [5]). As discussed in [2,6], the analytical and numerical treatment
for determination of the eective constitutive model of cracked laminate can be categorized as (1)
self-consistent method, (2) variational method, (3) continuum damage mechanics, (4) shear lag, (5)
stress transfer mechanism and (6) method based on equivalent constraint. A majority of the methods
developed for predicting the reduced properties of cracked laminates are applicable to only cross-ply
laminates as discussed in [7]. Later Gudmundson and Zang [8] and Adolfsson and Gudmundson
[9] developed models for equivalent degradation of the thermoelastic properties of laminate of more
general congurations. Here, the strain energy release rate as a function of the transverse crack
density was used to obtain the change in elastic coecients. This approach was later adopted in [10]
to study the transverse crack-induced damage evolution. In another approach proposed by Aberg
and Gudmundson [11], the matrix crack and ber fracture initiation was modeled as equivalent
volume force causing transient wave. Wave-based diagnostics is ideal for identication of such
damage initiation. However, ecient modeling technique is required to analyze the interaction of the
transient wave with the transverse crack.
In the present study, we consider the rst of the two objectives stated above, where transient wave
is introduced (rather than intrinsically generated due to energy release) to study the scattered wave
from the transverse crack. Single transverse crack within a laminate is considered for modeling.
Accuracy in modeling of such single transverse crack has more importance compared to modeling
the eect of multiple transverse crack through crack density or similar parameters, especially to
identify the location and size of the damage in wave-based diagnostics. As pointed out in [6], a
cracked lamina with known number and location of cracks behaves in a dierent manner compared
to a cracked lamina dened by the crack density.
1.1. Techniques for modeling of transverse crack
Transverse cracks in composite structures are usually modeled using beams, plates or shells with
appropriate kinematics. Such kinematics can be implemented in continuous model or nite element
model for globallocal analysis.
D. Sreekanth Kumar et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 17291751 1731
Semi-analytic models for cracked EulerBernoulli beam were developed by Christides and Barr
[12] and Shen and Pierre [13,14]. Similar approach along with crack function approximating the
crack-tip singular eld was used by Chondros et al. [15]. Carneiro and Inman [2] used the prescribed
surface traction and the displacement at the crack surfaces and the HuWashizuBarr variational
principle to develop continuous model for dynamic analysis of Timoshenko beam with transverse
crack. However, for a particular cracked beam conguration, a convergence study on the number of
terms in the test functions is necessary while adopting such technique.
Chinchalkar [16] developed a numerical technique for nding the location of crack in a cracked
metallic beam with varying cross-section considering the rst three natural frequencies. The crack
region was modeled using a rotational spring and the intersection in the plot of spring stiness
vs. crack location provided the correlation to the location of the crack. However, while adopting
this technique, the chosen natural frequencies should be such that they are aected by the local
damage conguration. Marur [17] has derived mode shape and frequency equation of edge-cracked
freefree Timoshenko beam. The coupled dierential equations were solved by treating the crack as
a discontinuity in terms of the moment of inertia at the location of the crack. Finite element for
static and dynamic analysis of cracked and notched prismatic beams was developed by Viola et al.
[18], where the crack closure eect is neglected and the cracked section is modeled as an elastic
hinge.
While investigating the dynamic behavior and crack detection in a cracked beam, Quian et al. [19]
derived the stiness matrix of a beam element with a crack considering the stress intensity factor
(SIF) in the energy expression. Sinha et al. [20] proposed a EulerBernoulli beam nite element with
small modication to the local exibility in the vicinity of a surface-breaking crack. Such change
in the exibility, following the earlier study by Christides and Barr [12], yields a triangular-shaped
variation in the exural rigidity around the span-wise location of the surface-breaking crack in a
beam. It can be seen in the formulations based on simplied one-dimensional (1D) models that a
fairly acceptable response of the cracked beam can be obtained under static and steady-state loading.
However, these models may not be adequate for ecient analysis in wave-based diagnostics, where
the excitation frequency is very high, depending on the desired nature of propagating wave to
interrogate the crack.
Models based on 2D elastodynamics is the ideal candidate for wave propagation in cracked beam
problems under plane stress or plane strain condition. The strip-element method for wave scattering
in cracked composite was rst proposed by Liu and Achenbach [21]. The strip-element method uses
the characteristic solution (wavenumber dispersion) of the 2D elastodynamic equation and eigen
vectors to compute the displacement in terms of integral expression. This method was later extended
by Xi et al. [22] for analyzing wave scattering by an axisymmetric crack in a laminated composite
cylindrical shell lled with uid under axisymmetric conguration. A hybrid method by combining
nite element discretization in propagation direction and strip element discretization in thickness
direction in cracked laminates was developed by Liu [23]. A spectral super-element model was
used in [24] to model transverse crack in isotropic beam and the dynamic stress intensity factor was
obtained accurately under impact type loading. Krawczuk et al. [25] developed a spectral element for
detecting cracks in beam structure, where the crack region was idealized using equivalent exibility
derived from a crack function.
The spectral element technique used in [26] to model horizontal crack or delamination in laminated
composite beam was based on interface kinematics between the sub-laminates and the base-laminate.
In the present paper, a more complex constrained kinematics is used to form the nite element having
a single surface-breaking or embedded transverse crack. However, the eect of crack-tip singularity
is not included in the present model, and the transverse crack conguration is modeled as structural
discontinuity in a particular laminate of the beam. The main objective is to automate the element
construction considering a depth-wise single transverse crack with generic conguration embedded
in it, so that the interaction of the incident wave with the crack can be simulated with sucient
accuracy and less computational cost.
2. Spectral nite element model for uncracked beam
We consider rst-order shear deformable composite beam in (x; z) coordinate system (x the beam
axis). In the following derivations, bold face capital letters indicate matrices and the bold face small
letters indicate for vectors. Using Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), the spectral solution for primary
displacement eld variables can be expressed as
u(x; t) =
N
n=1
u(x; !
n
)e
i!
n
t
=
N
n=1
_
_
6
j=1
u
j
e
ik
j
x
_
_
e
i!
n
t
; (1)
where i =
1, !
n
is the frequency at nth sampling point, N is the Nyquist frequency in Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) used for numerical implementation. k
j
is the wavenumber associated with the jth
mode of wave (forward or backward propagating or decaying mode). u = { u
0
w

}
T
represents
the spectral amplitude vector corresponding to the generic displacement vector as a function of
(x; !
n
). u
0
is the in-plane displacement, w is the transverse displacement and is the cross-sectional
rotation. u
j
={ u
j
w
j

j
}
T
represents the wave coecient vector associated with jth mode of wave.
The applied force history is expressed as
f(x; t) =
N
n=1
f(x; !
n
)e
i!
n
t
; (2)
where the spatial variation of the spectral amplitude of force vector

f(x; !
n
) can be lumped consis-
tently using the spectral displacement interpolation function [27]. Substituting the eld variables in
governing dierential equations, we get the characteristic equation, which is then solved for k
j
at
each !
n
, n=1; : : : ; N. A matrix called amplitude ratio matrix consisting of the base vectors from the
null space of the characteristic system is then used to form the element interpolation function. Ana-
lytical expressions of the elements of the amplitude ratio matrix for the rst-order shear deformable
beam is given in [27]. Using the force boundary conditions we eliminate the wave coecients and
form a complex dynamic stiness matrix. The assembled system of spectral elements is solved at
each sampling frequency. Time history of the eld variables can then be post-processed using in-
verse FFT. The detail derivation and the numerical implementation aspect can be found in [27,28].
Therefore we shall skip this formulation and show only the steps required to assemble the waveguides
and condense out the internal degrees of freedom near the crack.
3. Spectral elements with embedded transverse crack
3.1. Element-internal discretization and kinematic assumptions
Conguration of the spectral element with embedded transverse crack and the element-internal
discretization details are shown in Fig. 1. In absence of any crack, a single spectral element between
node-1 and node-2 (Fig. 1(a)) is sucient to capture the exact dynamics of the shear deformable
composite beam, which has been described in [27]. Let us consider a transverse crack in a beam
that requires explicit denition by three additional parameters. These three parameters are (1) the
span-wise location of the transverse crack (x = L
1
+ L=2 as shown in Fig. 1(a), L
1
and L
will be dened later), (2) the thickness-wise location of the bottom crack-tip (z = d
1
) and (3) the
thickness-wise location of the top crack-tip (z = d
2
; h = d
2
d
1
is the crack depth). We assume
that the transverse crack is a through-width crack (along y direction) which allows the modeling
to be accomplished using 1D waveguides. The element-internal discretization as shown in Fig. 1(b)
produces six internal waveguides numbered (1)(6). For all these elements, a total of 10 additional
nodes apart from the node-1 and node-2 will appear in the formulation, and the degrees of freedoms
(DOFs) associated with them will be condensed out systematically. As a result, a simple two-node
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the transverse crack conguration, (a) The 2-node spectral element conguration with
embedded transverse crack, (b) Element internal discretization through the two base-laminates (waveguides (1) and (2)),
two continuous sub-laminates (waveguides (5) at the bottom and (6) at the top) and two discontinuous sub-laminates
(waveguides (3) and (4)) to represent the crack. Locations of the internal element nodes 312 are shown which are later
condensed out. (c) Use of linear viscoelastic contact model between the crack surfaces.
element can be used to model the transverse crack in a metallic or composite beam, where faster
and repeated analysis with acceptable accuracy will be of prime importance for damage identication
studies and various SHM applications in conjunction with wave-based diagnostic signal.
Since the main objective behind using such model is to improve upon the various available
approximate models based on equivalent exibility, empirical crack-functions, etc., it is essential
for the proposed element-internal discretization technique (Fig. 1) that any spurious scattering eect
be avoided. It can be seen in Fig. 1 that elements (3) and (4) are expected to behave as hanging
elements, especially when their length becomes longer. This can be avoided in two ways. Either a
bound on the length of elements (3) and (4) in terms of the incident wavelength should be imposed
or appropriate constraints on the top and bottom surfaces of elements (3) and (4) should be imposed
while choosing longer length.
Calculations for implementing both options are presented in this paper. A Bound on the length of
the hanging elements is used in this paper for comparison of the result with standard nite element
results and other numerical simulations. This bound is derived next. The constraint equations for
unbounded length of the hanging elements are formulated after the basic element formulation.
We consider equal length of the hanging laminates denoted by L=2 as shown in Fig. 1(b).
For any arbitrary dynamic excitation involving multiple harmonics, the bound on the length of the
hanging laminates is imposed in terms of the smallest group wavelength, which is given by
LMin(
g
);
g
= c
g
=; (3)
where c
g
is the group wave velocity dened as c
g
= d!=dk, k the wavenumber, = !=2 is the
excitation frequency. As the frequency increases, the group wavelength
g
decreases. Note that
g
is same as the wavelength = c= for single frequency excitation (c the phase velocity), but is
dierent from for a band-limited excitation about a central frequency. Considering the arrival of
the waves through the uncracked base-laminates, Eq. (3) can now can be used to eliminate any
spurious scattering of wave in an approximate manner.
The kinematic assumption adopted in the present formulation is that the cross-sectional interfaces
between the base-laminate, the sub-laminates and the hanging-laminates remain straight, i.e. the slope
is continuous and constant at these interfaces. Under this assumption, one can relate the nodal DOFs
at the interfaces as follows:
u
7
=
_
_
u
0
7
w
7
7
_
_
=
_
_
u
0
5
+ h
1

5
w
5
5
_
_
= S
1
u
5
; (4)
u
8
=
_
_
u
0
8
w
8
8
_
_
=
_
_
u
0
5
+ h
2

5
w
5
5
_
_
= S
2
u
5
; (5)
u
9
=
_
_
u
0
9
w
9
9
_
_
=
_
_
u
0
5
+ h
3

5
w
5
5
_
_
= S
3
u
5
(6)
and similarly,
u
10
= S
1
u
6
; u
11
= S
2
u
6
; u
12
= S
3
u
6
; (7)
where
S
1
=
_
_
1 0 h
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
; S
2
=
_
_
1 0 h
2
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
; S
3
=
_
_
1 0 h
3
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
: (8)
3.1.1. Interface equilibrium of forces
Considering the left interface between the base laminate and sub-laminates (Fig. 1), the equilibrium
of the associated nodal forces can be written as
_
N
5
V
5
M
5
_
_
+
_
N
7
V
7
M
7
+ h
1

N
7
_
_
+
_
N
8
V
8
M
8
+ h
2

N
8
_
_
+
_
N
9
V
9
M
9
+ h
3

N
9
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
; (9)
which, in matrix form and with the help of Eq. (8), can be expressed as
f
5
+ S
T
1

f
7
+ S
T
2

f
8
+ S
T
3

f
9
= 0: (10)
Similarly, considering the right interface between the base-laminate and sub-laminates (Fig. 1),
the equilibrium of the associated nodal forces can be expressed as
f
6
+ S
T
1

f
10
+ S
T
2

f
11
+ S
T
3

f
12
= 0: (11)
At the crack surface,
f
3
+

f
4
= 0 (12)
and under the assumption of no contact between the crack surfaces,

f
3
=0 and

f
4
=0. The eect of
contact between the crack surfaces will be dealt as a separate case later.
3.1.2. Assembly of the element-internal waveguides
The element equilibrium equation for the jth element-internal waveguide (j=1; 2 for base-laminates,
j = 5; 6 for sub-laminates and j = 3; 4 for hanging-laminates as shown in Fig. 1) with nodes p and
q can be expressed in generic sense as
_

K
( j)
11

K
( j)
12
K
( j)
21

K
( j)
22
_
(66)
_
u
p
u
q
_
=
_
f
p
f
q
_
; (13)
where

K
( j)
(66)
is the complex dynamic stiness matrix [27]. The above equation, for the internal
element-(1):
_

K
(1)
11

K
(1)
12
K
(1)
21

K
(1)
22
_
(66)
_
u
1
u
5
_
=
_
f
1
f
5
_
; (14)
or the internal element-(2):
_

K
(2)
11

K
(2)
12
K
(2)
21

K
(2)
22
_
(66)
_
u
6
u
2
_
=
_
f
6
f
2
_
; (15)
for the internal element-(3):
_

K
(3)
11

K
(3)
12
K
(3)
21

K
(3)
22
_
(66)
_
u
8
u
3
_
=
_
f
8
f
3
_
: (16)
Expressing u
8
in terms of u
5
with the help of Eq. (5) and premultiplying both sides of Eq. (16) by
S
T
2
, we get
_
S
T
2

K
(3)
11
S
2
S
T
2

K
(3)
12
S
T
2

K
(3)
21
S
2
S
T
2

K
(3)
22
_
(66)
_
u
5
u
3
_
=
_
S
T
2

f
8
S
T
2

f
3
_
: (17)
The equilibrium equation for the internal element-(4):
_

K
(4)
11

K
(4)
12
K
(4)
21

K
(4)
22
_
(66)
_
u
4
u
11
_
=
_
f
4
f
11
_
: (18)
Expressing u
11
in terms of u
6
with the help of Eq. (7) and premultiplying both sides of Eq. (18)
by S
T
2
, we get
_
S
T
2

K
(4)
11
S
T
2

K
(4)
12
S
2
S
T
2

K
(4)
21
S
T
2

K
(4)
22
S
2
_
(66)
_
u
4
u
6
_
=
_
S
T
2

f
4
S
T
2

f
11
_
: (19)
The element equilibrium equation for the internal element-(5):
_

K
(5)
11

K
(5)
12
K
(5)
21

K
(5)
22
_
(66)
_
u
7
u
10
_
=
_
f
7
f
10
_
: (20)
Expressing u
7
and u
10
in terms of u
5
and u
6
respectively with the help of Eqs. (4)(7) and premul-
tiplying both sides of Eq. (20) by S
T
1
, we get
_
S
T
1

K
(5)
11
S
1
S
T
1

K
(5)
12
S
1
S
T
1

K
(5)
21
S
1
S
T
1

K
(5)
22
S
1
_
(66)
_
u
5
u
6
_
=
_
S
T
1

f
7
S
T
1

f
10
_
: (21)
The element equilibrium equation for the internal element-(6):
_

K
(6)
11

K
(6)
12
K
(6)
21

K
(6)
22
_
(66)
_
u
9
u
12
_
=
_
f
9
f
12
_
: (22)
Expressing u
9
and u
12
in terms of u
5
and u
6
respectively with the help of Eqs. (6) and (7) and
premultiplying both sides of Eq. (22) by S
T
3
, we get
_
S
T
3

K
(6)
11
S
3
S
T
3

K
(6)
12
S
3
S
T
3

K
(6)
21
S
3
S
T
3

K
(6)
22
S
3
_
(66)
_
u
5
u
6
_
=
_
S
T
3

f
9
S
T
3

f
12
_
: (23)
3.1.2.1. Modeling of dynamic contact between the crack surfaces. Although the proposed spectral
nite element with embedded transverse crack is developed to study the interaction of diagnostic
waves with the crack and its eect captured at the distant measurement locations, the eect of
dynamic frictional contact and viscosity due to the polymer matrix grain boundary and broken
ber fragments in composite can also be modeled. Similar models for delamination can be found
in [29,30]. However, more complex model includes non-linear spring to restrict the occurrence of
the incompatible openingclosing modes due to inter-penetration. This development will not be
attempted in the present scope. Fig. 1(c) shows the transverse crack surfaces and the associated
hanging laminates (3) and (4). The motion of the crack surfaces are approximated through the
motion of node-3 and node-4. Let us assume that the distributed spring and viscoelastic contact
force along the crack surfaces can be lumped on the node-3 and node-4 as
_
f
3
f
4
_
=
_

K
_
(66)
_
u
4
u
3
_
; (24)
where
=
_
_
(K
u
+ i!C
u
) 0 0
0 (K
w
+ i!C
w
) 0
0 0 (K
+ i!C
)
_
_
; (25)
K
u
, K
w
, K
are the spring stinesses and C

u
, C
w
and C
are the viscous damping coecients asso-

ciated with relative longitudinal displacement, transverse displacement and rotation between node-3
and node-4.
After assembling the element equilibrium equations for the six internal elements (Eqs. (14)(22))
and subsequently using Eqs. (10)(12) and Eq. (24), we get
_
_
K
11
K
12
0 0 0 0
K
21
K
22
K
23
0 K
25
0
0 K
32
K
33
K
34
0 0
0 0 K
43
K
44
K
45
0
0 K
52
0 K
54
K
55
K
56
0 0 0 0 K
65
K
66
_
_
(1818)
_
_
u
1
u
5
u
3
u
4
u
6
u
2
_
_
=
_
f
1
0
0
0
0
f
2
_
_
; (26)
where
K
11
=

K
(1)
11
; K
12
=

K
(1)
12
; K
21
=

K
(1)
21
;
K
22
=

K
(1)
22
+ S
T
1

K
(5)
11
S
1
+ S
T
2

K
(3)
11
S
2
+ S
T
3

K
(6)
11
S
3
;
K
23
= S
T
2

K
(3)
12
; K
25
= S
T
1

K
(5)
12
S
1
+ S
T
3

K
(6)
12
S
3
; K
32
=

K
(3)
21
S
1
;
K
33
=

K
(3)
22
+ S
T
2
K
; K
34
=S
T
2
K
; K
43
=S
T
2
K
;
K
44
=

K
(4)
11
+ S
T
2
K
; K
45
=

K
(4)
12
S
2
;
Fig. 2. Representation of the base-, sub- and hanging-laminates by spectral elements for (a) top surface-breaking crack
and (b) bottom surface-breaking crack.
K
52
= S
T
1

K
(5)
21
S
1
+ S
T
3

K
(6)
21
S
3
; K
54
= S
T
2

K
(4)
21
;
K
55
=

K
(2)
11
+ S
T
1

K
(5)
22
S
1
+ S
T
2

K
(4)
22
S
2
+ S
T
3

K
(6)
22
S
3
; K
56
=

K
(2)
12
;
K
65
=

K
(2)
21
; K
66
=

K
(2)
22
:
3.1.2.2. Modeling of surface-breaking cracks. The surface-breaking cracks can be considered in
the same framework as formulated above. Fig. 2(a) and (b) shows the internal elements for the
top and bottom surface-breaking cracks, respectively. The only dierences in these cases compared
to the embedded transverse crack is that here the number of elements and nodes representing the
top sub-laminates (element-(6)) and bottom sub-laminates (element-5) (in Fig. 1(b) are absent.
Therefore, by removing these element equilibrium equations while assembly, one can obtain the
modied form of Eq. (26) for the top and bottom surface-breaking cracks.
3.1.3. Super-element level condensation
We rst condense out the DOFs at the crack surfaces (i.e. node-3 and node-4), which reduces
Eq. (26) to
_
K
11

K
12
0 0
K
21

K
22

K
23
0
0

K
32

K
33

K
34
0 0

K
43

K
44
_
_
(1212)
_
_
u
1
u
5
u
6
u
2
_
_
=
_
f
1
0
0
f
2
_
_
; (27)
where
K
11
= K
11
;

K
12
= K
12
;

K
21
= K
21
;

K
22
= K
22
+ K
23
K
35
;
K
23
= K
25
+ K
23
K
36
;

K
32
= K
52
+ K
54
K
45
;
K
33
= K
55
+ K
54
K
46
;

K
34
= K
56
;

K
43
= K
65
;
K
44
= K
66
; K
45
= (K
44
K
43
K
1
33
K
34
)
1
K
43
K
1
33
K
32
;
K
46
=(K
44
K
43
K
1
33
K
34
)
1
K
45
;
K
35
=(K
1
33
K
32
+ K
1
33
K
34
K
45
); K
36
=K
1
33
K
34
K
46
:
In the second step, we condense out the DOFs at node-5 and node-6, which yields the nal form of
the equilibrium equation representing a two node element with embedded transverse crack and can
be expressed as
_
_
K
11

K
12
K
21

K
22
_
_
(66)
_
u
1
u
2
_
=
_
f
1
f
2
_
; (28)
where
K
11
= K
11
+ K
12
K
51
;

K
12
= K
12
K
52
;

K
21
= K
43
K
61
;
K
22
= K
44
+ K
43
K
62
; K
61
= (K
33
K
32
K
1
22
K
23
)
1
K
32
K
1
22
K
21
;
K
62
=(K
33
K
32
K
1
22
K
23
)
1
K
34
;
K
51
=(K
1
22
K
21
+ K
1
22
K
23
K
61
); K
52
=K
1
22
K
23
K
62
:
Now, one only needs to replace the spectral element for the uncracked beam with this new spectral
element, wherever the presence of a transverse crack is to be accounted. Hence, it is evident from the
systematic matrix formulation that insertion of this element on a modular basis is very much suitable
for ecient analysis of transverse cracks in composite beams and skeletal structures. To emphasize
on the novel use of this element for applications in SHM, its numerical performance is compared
with standard plane-stress nite element simulations in Section 4.1. Before proceeding further on the
numerical studies, the constrained formulation to accommodate longer hanging laminates (3) and (4)
by enforcing displacement continuities, which is an alternate option to Eq. (3), is discussed below.
3.1.4. Distributed constraints at the interfaces between sublaminates and hanging laminates
For longer length of sublaminates (5) and (6) and intermediate hanging laminates (3) and (4)
shown in Fig. 1(b), especially when LMin(
g
) as discussed in the context of Eq. (3), interfacial
slip and other discontinuities at the horizontal interfaces between the hanging laminates and the
top and bottom sub-laminates may become signicant for certain wave interaction and need to be
restricted. This requires displacement continuity between the surface displacements of a hanging
laminate and the neighboring sub-laminate, which can be expressed as
u(x)
( j)
t
= u(x)
(l)
b
; (29)
where the superscripts (j) and (l) indicate the element numbers and the subscripts t and b indicate
the top or bottom surfaces, respectively. While modeling delamination along with ber fracture,
such constraints can be removed. It can be seen from Fig. 1(a) that there are four such horizontal
interfaces where constraints need to be imposed otherwise. Considering element-(5) and element-(3),
Eq. (29) can be expanded using the generic eld variables as
_
_
1 0 z
(5)
t
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
u
0
w
_
(5)
=
_
_
1 0 z
(3)
b
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
u
0
w
_
(3)
: (30)
Further, using the displacement interpolation function (x; !
n
) in Eq. (30), we get
H
(5)
t
(x; !
n
)
(5)
u
(5)
= H
(3)
b
(x; !
n
)
(3)
u
(3)
: (31)
Similarly for the other three interfaces, the constraints are
H
(5)
t
(x; !
n
)
(5)
u
(5)
= H
(4)
b
(x; !
n
)
(4)
u
(4)
; (32)
H
(3)
t
(x; !
n
)
(3)
u
(3)
= H
(6)
b
(x; !
n
)
(6)
u
(6)
; (33)
H
(4)
t
(x; !
n
)
(4)
u
(4)
= H
(6)
b
(x; !
n
)
(6)
u
(6)
: (34)
The nodal displacement vectors u
(5)
T
={ u
T
8
u
T
3
} and u
(4)
T
={ u
T
4
u
T
11
} can now be transformed using
Eq. (26) in the above Eqs. (31)(34) and the internal nodes can be condensed out systematically.
To illustrate further, let us consider the constraint for the rst interface as given by Eq. (31), which
can be rewritten after transformation as
_

C
11

C
12
C
21

C
22
_
(66)
_
u
5
u
6
_
=
_
0
0
_
: (35)
Since in Eq. (35), u
5
and u
6
are the internal nodal vectors, they are to be mapped onto node-1 and
node-2. This second step with the help of Eq. (27) gives
_
C
11
C
12
C
21
C
22
_
(66)
_
u
1
u
2
_
=
_
0
0
_
C(x; !
n
)
(1)
u
e
= 0: (36)
Similar constraints for the other three horizontal interfaces can be obtained in the same way, where
C(x; !
n
)
(j)
, j = 1; : : : ; 4 are the matrices of coecients associated with the multi-point constraints
mapped on the DOFs of the two-node element with embedded transverse crack. Introducing a di-
agonal matrix of penalty parameters and minimizing the potential in frequency domain [31], the
updated dynamic stiness matrix for the element with embedded transverse crack incorporating un-
bounded length of the internal hanging laminates can be expressed as
K
U
=

K +

K
C
; (37)
where
K
C
=
_
L=2
0
(C
(1)
T
C
(1)
+ C
(3)
T
C
(3)
) dx
+
_
L
L=2
(C
(2)
T
C
(2)
+ C
(4)
T
C
(4)
) dx: (38)
4. Numerical simulations
The element equations are implemented in a spectral nite element code with built-in FFT algo-
rithm. Various computational issues related to SFEMs and its numerical implementation can be found
in [27,28]. The modular approach towards addition of a new element in the library involves only
Fig. 3. A high-frequency pulse used to study the response of the cracked composite beams. The spectral amplitude

f over
the frequency axis is shown in the inset.
three additional input parameters to model a transverse crack. These additional inputs are span-wise
location of the crack (L
1
+ L=2), depth-wise location of the top and bottom crack-tips (d
1
; d
2
).
Although, the eect of crack-tip singularity is not included in the local analysis, it is essential to
validate the performance of the proposed element for wave-based diagnostics and SHM applications,
where most of the damage models are approximated by springs or equivalent change in the consti-
tutive model for faster analysis. In the following section, response of an unidirectional composite
cantilever beam with mid-span surface-breaking ber fracture under a high-frequency pulse loading
simulated using the proposed SFEM is compared with a detailed 2D FE model.
4.1. Comparison with 2D FEM
An AS/35056 uni-directional graphite-epoxy cantilever beam of length 800 mm and having a
cross-sectional area 16 mm thickness 10 mm width is considered for this study. An 8 mm deep
top surface-breaking crack is introduced at mid-span of the beam. A high-frequency pulse loading
as shown in Fig. 3 is applied at the tip of the cantilever beam in transverse direction. Spectral nite
element analysis is carried out using a single spectral nite element with embedded crack. In all
the numerical simulation using spectral elements, length of the hanging laminates L=2 is chosen
using Eq. (3). 16384 FFT sampling points (! = 12:2070 Hz) are used for forward and inverse
transform of the loading and response, respectively. In the detail FE analysis, the ne mesh consists
of 5120 constant strain triangular elements under plane-stress condition in X Z plane. Newmark time
integration with time step t =1 s is used. Here the element size is comparable with the wavelength
Fig. 4. Comparison of the transverse velocity w history at the mid-plane of the tip of the cantilever beam predicted by the
single spectral element and detail 2D FE models at the mid-plane of the tip of the cantilever beam under high-frequency
pulse loading (Fig. 3).
of applied excitation. The pulse load (Fig. 3) is applied consistently in transverse direction at the
tip cross-section of the FE model. Fig. 4 shows plots of w history at the mid-node of the tip
cross-section predicted by spectral nite element and detail 2D FE analysis. After the incident pulse,
the eect of crack due to wave scattering at around 0.550:6 ms can be visible. The peak amplitude
of the velocity history and its arrival time matches very well with the 2D FE prediction. However,
a small additional peak before the main peak amplitude can be visible, which is due to several
approximations made in the proposed modeling compared to the actual local crack-tip behavior.
Indeed, the overall trend of the response predicted by the proposed spectral element can be seen
as a reliable one, in terms of the arrival time of the broad-band wave scattered from the crack, as
well as the associate peak amplitude in the signal. Another important aspect we need to mention in
this context is that the inter-penetration of the crack surfaces of the breathing crack in the detail 2D
FE analysis (in absence of contact elements) was found to occur much beyond the time window
shown in Fig. 4 and having negligible amplitude (relative displacement between the crack surfaces)
under small amplitude wave interaction as considered in this paper. Hence this can be considered
less signicant for transient wave-based diagnostics. However, a long duration monitoring under
sustained loading and associated incremental crack-growth related study need further strategy for FE
model-based identication of frequency dependent dynamic contact forces, which can be used then
in the developed spectral element for more accurate analysis.
4.2. Identication of crack location from scattered wave
To identify the location of crack from the scattered wave through numerical simulation, the same
AS/35056 graphite-epoxy cantilever beam as considered earlier is used. As compared to the 8 mm
Fig. 5. Transverse velocity w history at the cantilever tip due to high-frequency pulse (Fig. 3) applied at the cantilever
tip in transverse direction for a mid-span 8 mm deep embedded crack placed symmetrically across the beam thickness. *
mark shows the analytical estimate of the arrival time of the reected wave from the crack.
deep surface-breaking crack (in Fig. 4), Fig. 5 shows the w history at the cantilever tip of the beam
with a mid-span 8 mm deep embedded crack introduced symmetrically across the thickness. From
the group speed of the exural wave c
g
=d!
n
=dk
j
=2
4
_
D
11
!
2
n
=I
0
, the time of arrival of the exural
wave is estimated and is shown by * mark on Fig. 5. Although the time of arrival is same for both
the surface-breaking crack and the embedded crack, which is obvious, a smaller peak is visible at
0:58 ms, which is due to the embedded crack without any change in the overall response compared
to the response due to the embedded crack.
Next we consider a sinusoidal pulse modulated at 20 kHz as shown in Fig. 6 for wave-based
interrogation of the cracked beam. Such a pulse will contain maximum energy within a very small
frequency band and the peak energy will be at the frequency at which it is modulated. Since
this is only a single dominant frequency in the frequency spectrum (see Fig. 6 inset), it travels
non-dispersively even in a dispersive medium. Such modulated pulse has been extensively used
in experimental investigations (e.g. [32,33]) as well as computational simulations (e.g. [26,32])
for wave-based diagnostics. Using this modulated pulse applied at the cantilever tip in transverse
direction, the transverse velocity w at the cantilever tip is simulated. Fig. 7 shows the response for
a mid-span 8 mm deep top surface-breaking crack. Fig. 8 shows the response for a mid-span 8 mm
deep embedded crack. Analytical estimate of the arrival time (t = 2l=c
g
, c
g
= 1944:59 m=s) of the
reected pulse is shown in the gures by * marks. The simulated arrival time is found to be matching
very closely with the analytical estimates. It can be seen from Figs. 7 and 8 that the reected wave
amplitudes from the embedded crack is slightly higher than those due to the surface-breaking crack
of same depth.
Fig. 6. Single frequency tone-burst sinusoidal pulse modulated at 20 kHz using trapizoidal window. The spectral amplitude
f over the frequency axis is shown in the inset.

Fig. 7. Transverse velocity w at the cantilever tip due to modulated sine pulse transversely applied at the tip of the
cantilever with a mid-span 8 mm deep top surface-breaking crack.
cantilever with a mid-span 8 mm deep embedded crack.
4.3. Sensitivity of the crack conguration
Numerical simulations with varying crack depth and contact stinesses of the crack surfaces
produce no visible uctuation in the scattered waves from the embedded crack under present loading
in exural-shear mode. However, the surface-breaking crack with variation in the crack depth and
contact stinesses of the crack surfaces show signicant changes in the scattered waves, which are
plotted in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. As the crack depth becomes more than half of the beam
thickness (16 mm), additional peaks after rst reection can be seen in Fig. 9. In Fig. 10, the
contact stiness between the crack surfaces are varied using a stiness factor , where only the
surface-normal contact stiness is considered and is assumed to be K
=Q
11
. Apart from the main
reected wave from the crack at around 1 ms, which indicates the crack location, Fig. 10 shows small
amplitudes of additional scatters for contact stiness smaller than Q
11
, and signicant amplitude of
additional scatters for contact stiness more than Q
11
, which can be considered as sti inclusion. In
the present 1D model, the higher-order Lamb wave modes, especially the thickness stretching mode
is not accounted. From the simulations, it appears that for identication of the crack conguration
completely, especially the crack depth and thickness-wise location of crack, a higher-order Lamb
wave model based on high-frequency excitation in exural-shear-thickness stretching modes may be
necessary. Such data can be used to develop ecient soft computing tools for crack identication.
4.4. Identication of crack using a damage force indicator
The ecient use of the proposed spectral nite element with embedded crack is extended in this
section to evaluate a damage force indicator vector [26,34], which can be used for identication of
transverse cracks as a single or multiple damage zone from the global structural measurement. This
cantilever with a top surface-breaking crack with varying depth. No contact between the surfaces are assumed.
cantilever with a top surface-breaking crack with varying contact stinesses (K
= Q
11
). Crack depth is 8 mm.
indicator is derived from undamaged structural model and nodal force spectrum for the damaged
structure. As a part of the interrogation process, this damage force indicator can be obtained by post
processing the measured data along with the previously updated FE model data. However, while using
standard nite element mesh for vibration-based (global) and wave-based (local) interrogation, one
needs to have force measurements at these nite element nodes. The number of nodes can be large
even for a simple beam problem. This also requires several sensors to be placed at the locations of
nite element nodes. One of the distinctive advantage while using the proposed spectral nite element
with embedded crack is that a uniform beam with single transverse crack anywhere inside the beam
needs only two end-nodes. As it is clear from the proposed formulation, the beam can be of any
length with any type of boundary conditions. Hence, maximum requirement in this case is only the
force measurements at the two nodes of the element. This would be useful in reducing the hardware
to a great extent. With such improvement, on-line health monitoring of large composite framed
structures becomes much easier. In absence of experimental measurement, both the uncracked and
cracked structural models are used to compute the damage force indicator, which actually demonstrate
a simulated sequence of identication procedure in real-life.
The global dynamic stiness matrix of the healthy structure

K
h
(!
n
) at each FFT sampling fre-
quency !
n
is obtained using standard nite element assembly. The damage force vector is dened
as
f =

K
h
u
d

f
d
; (39)
where the subscript h stands for healthy (uncracked) structure and subscripts d stand for damaged
(cracked) structure. If damage occurs, the vector
f will have non-zero entries only at the DOFs

connected to the damaged elements. The above expression requires the excitation force (
f
d
) or
internal forces at the nodes to be known. Direct measurement of this vector requires force sensors.
Since, in the present paper, the sequence is simulated without any experiment and we have the
developed element with embedded crack, we assume

f
d
=

K
d
u
d
. However, in SFEM, inverse problem
can be solved to obtain

f
d
from dierent types of signal measurements such as displacements, strains
or their rates. Multiplying
f in Eq. (39) by transpose of its complex conjugate
, we get one
(m m) square matrix

R(!
n
) as
R(!
n
) =
; (40)
where m is the total number of DOFs in the model. Now if the damage or crack is expected in the ith
element, the existing element can be replaced by the developed spectral nite element with embedded
crack. There will be non-zero diagonal entries in

R(!
n
) corresponding to the DOFs associated with
the ith element. Rest of the diagonal entries will be zero. Magnitude of these non-zero diagonal entries
will depend on the applied load, and the crack conguration. Summing up the absolute values of
the diagonal entries in

R(!
n
) over all frequency steps n=1; : : : ; N (N =Nyquist frequency in FFT),
the damage force indicator vector d of length m is obtained as
d
i
=
!
n
|
R
ii
|; i [1; m]; n = 1; : : : ; N: (41)
4.4.1. Eect of single crack on the damage force indicator vector
An AS/35056 graphite-epoxy cantilever beam of length 0:8 m, cross-sectional area 10 mm10 mm
is considered here, which is uniformly discretized into eight elements as shown in Fig. 11. 2048
FFT sampling points (! = 24:4140 kHz) is used.

K
h
is stored for each FFT sampling frequency.
The broad-band load (Fig. 3) is applied in transverse direction at the cantilever tip node (DOF-23).
Next, in each of the new damage models, a single 5 mm deep surface-breaking transverse crack
is introduced in one of the eight elements.

K
d
is constructed for each of these models and u
d
is
Fig. 11. A cantilever beam discretized with eight spectral elements to study the eect of transverse crack on normalized
damage force indicator. The elements and DOFs are numbered as shown.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
5
10
15
20
25 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
DOFs
Configuration
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

f
o
r
c
e

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
Fig. 12. Normalized damage force indicators for the transverse DOFs for the cantilever beam with a single surface-breaking
crack. The conguration number corresponds to the element number containing the crack.
obtained by solving the global system. The damage force indicator vector d is then computed for
each of these models using Eqs. (39)(41). Figs. 12 and 13 show the plots of d
i
normalized with
respect to Max(d) corresponding to the transverse and rotational DOFs, respectively. Peaks at the
DOFs associated with the cracked elements can be seen from these 3D bar plots. It can be seen
that damage force indicator shows signicant increase when the crack is near the tip where load is
applied. Also, this is a particular characteristic of the xed-free boundary condition. That is, larger the
displacement peaks (indicating large displacement amplitude spectrum in frequency domain), larger
is the change in the response due to damage at the nearby nite element nodes. This particular
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
5
10
15
20
25 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
DOFs
Configuration
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

f
o
r
c
e

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
Fig. 13. Normalized damage force indicators for the rotational DOFs for the cantilever beam with a single surface-breaking
crack. The conguration number corresponds to the element number containing the crack.
aspect is well suited for vibration-based diagnostics and identication of the damaged zone from
global measurement. Further local identication task can be performed within the damaged zone
using available soft-computing tools [25,3537].
5. Conclusions
A spectral nite element with embedded transverse crack for wave-based diagnostic simulation
is developed in the present paper. A comprehensive background of the modeling complexities and
associated structural health monitoring issues are revisited. A brief overview of the spectral nite
element model is made, which serves as the basic framework of the nite element model.
While modeling the transverse crack, the local zone is discretized into few 1D waveguides.
First-order shear deformable kinematics is assumed. Appropriate displacement continuity at the inter-
faces between the element-internal waveguide boundaries are enforced. The equilibrium equations of
the assembled systems are systematically treated through matrix notation. From this assembly of the
element-internal waveguides, the internal nodes are condensed out in steps, and nally a two-node
exact beam nite element with a single transverse crack embedded in it is obtained. The element
construction is automated and implemented in a general purpose nite element code. It becomes
straight-forward to dene the transverse crack conguration through three input parameters, which
are the span-wise location of the crack and the thickness-wise locations of the crack tips. Hence, in
presence of a transverse crack, only a single such element can be inserted replacing an uncracked
element.
Although, the eect of crack-tip singular eld is not included in the model directly for local
analysis, the developed element is most suited for wave-based diagnostics using excitation and mea-
surement from distance and adds up in the family of various available damage models for structural
health monitoring. Performance of the element is validated by comparing the response obtained from
a detailed 2D nite element model with constant strain triangular elements and Newmark time in-
tegration under a broad-band pulse loading. The result shows good agreement of the broad-band
response of the element used for wave scattering in composite beam with single transverse crack.
The sensitivity of the response due to dierent crack depths and contact stiness between the crack
surfaces show the possibility to develop suitable identication strategies at global as well as local
level. Simulation of global identication process based on the damage force indicator is carried
out, where the eect of single transverse crack location (span-wise) in a cantilever beam is illus-
trated. Apart from small amplitude wave-based diagnostics, long duration monitoring of breathing
crack under steady-state vibration or impact type loading is one of the important aspect of more
detailed modeling. This needs frequency-dependent dynamic contact mechanism to be introduced in
the present framework by solving inverse problem, and detail FE analysis or experiments can be
carried out towards this direction. Also, the sensitivity of the higher order Lamb wave (symmetric
thickness stretching mode) scattering from the crack can be looked upon to generate more additional
features in the scattered response and hence for local identication of complete crack conguration.
References
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1993.
[2] S.H.S. Carneiro, D.J. Inman, Continuous model for the transverse vibration of cracked Timoshenko beams, J. Vib.
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Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 17291751

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-80-309-2757; fax: +91-80-360-0134.

are the spring stinesses and C

are the viscous damping coecients asso-

f over the frequency axis is shown in the inset.

f will have non-zero entries only at the DOFs

f in Eq. (39) by transpose of its complex conjugate

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