Investigation on the mechanical properties of the

metamaterial structures under different parameters

A
Capstone Project
Submitted in Fulfilment of the
Requirement for Award of the Degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

By

Aman Kumar Yadav (12219718)

Sangam Kumar Yadav (12219710)
Sunkara Lokesh (12106862)
Tenzing Chojung Libasow(12110039)

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Manjeet Singh

Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
PHAGWARA, PUNJAB (INDIA) -144402,
2024-25

1|Page
 Lovely Professional University Jalandhar, Punjab

CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the capstone entitled
“Investigation on the mechanical properties of the metamaterial structures under
different parameters” in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology and submitted in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely
Professional University, Punjab is an authentic record of my own work carried out during
period of Capstone under the supervision of Dr Manjeet Singh, Associate Professor, School
of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Punjab.

The matter presented in this capstone has not been submitted by me anywhere for
the award of any other degree or to any other institute.

Students name:
Date: 01/05/2025 Aman Kumar Yadav, Sangam Kumar
Yadav, Sunkara Lokesh, Tenzing
Chojung Libasow

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to best of
my knowledge.

Date: 01/05/2023 Dr Manjeet Singh

Supervisor

The B-Tech capstone examination of MEC494, has been held on _________

Signature of Examiner

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 DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project work entitled “Investigation on the mechanical
properties of the metamaterial structures under different parameters.” is an authentic
record of our own work carried out as requirements of Capstone Project for the award of
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical engineering from Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara under the guidance of Dr. Manjeet Singh, during 2024 to 2025

All the information furnished in this capstone project report is based on our own intensive
work and is genuine.

Name of Student 1:

Aman Kumar Yadav

Registration Number : 12219718

Name of Student 2:

Sangam Kumar Yadav

Registration Number : 12219710

Name of Student 3:

Sunkara Lokesh

Registration Number : 12106862

Name of Student 4:

Tenzing Chojung Libasow

Registration Number : 12110039

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The completion of this research project would not have been possible without the
contributions and support of numerous individuals and organizations.
Firstly, we would like to thank our research supervisor Dr. Manjeet Singh for providing us
with valuable guidance, feedback, and support throughout the research process. His
enthusiasm, knowledge and exacting attention to detail have been an inspiration and kept
work on track.
We would also like to extend our appreciation to the staff and faculty of the School of
Mechanical Engineering for their support and resources.
We would like to thank the participants who volunteered their time and effort to take part in
this study. Their contributions were essential to the success of this research project. The
generosity and expertise of one and all have improved this study in innumerable ways and
saved us from many errors; those that inevitably remain are entirely our own responsibility.
Finally, we would like to thank each other for our collaboration and teamwork in completing
this research project.
We Aman Kumar Yadav, Sangam Kumar Yadav, Sunkara Lokesh and Tenzing Chojung
Libasow hereby confirm that we had not copied from the internet and we had done this
project by ourselves.

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 TOPIC APPROVAL PERFORMA

School of Mechanical Engineering (SME)

Program : P138-L::B.Tech. (Mechanical Engineering) [Lateral Entry]

COURSE CODE : MEC494 REGULAR/BACKLOG : Regular GROUP NUMBER : MERGC0017

Supervisor Name : Dr. Manjeet Singh UID : 21545 Designation : Professor

Qualification : ________________________ Research Experience : ________________________

SR.NO. NAME OF STUDENT Prov. Regd. No. BATCH SECTION CONTACT NUMBER

1 Aman Kumar Yadav 12219718 2022 M2101 9415373012

2 Sangam Kumar Yadav 12219710 2022 M2101 7570076479
3 Tenzing Chojung Libasow 12110039 2021 M2101 8415888704
4 Sunkara Lokesh 12106862 2021 M2101 8555812282

SPECIALIZATION AREA : CAD/CAM & Mechatronics Supervisor Signature: ___________________

PROPOSED TOPIC : Investigation on the mechanical properties of the metamaterial structures under different parameters

Qualitative Assessment of Proposed Topic by PAC

Sr.No. Parameter Rating (out of 10)

1 Project Novelty: Potential of the project to create new knowledge 8.30

2 Project Feasibility: Project can be timely carried out in-house with low-cost and available resources in 8.30
the University by the students.
3 Project Academic Inputs: Project topic is relevant and makes extensive use of academic inputs in UG 8.00
program and serves as a culminating effort for core study area of the degree program.
4 Project Supervision: Project supervisor’s is technically competent to guide students, resolve any issues, 8.23
and impart necessary skills.
5 Social Applicability: Project work intends to solve a practical problem. 7.84

6 Future Scope: Project has potential to become basis of future research work, publication or patent. 7.53

PAC Committee Members

PAC Member (HOD/Chairperson) Name: Dr. Manpreet Singh UID: 20360 Recommended (Y/N): Yes

PAC Member (Allied) Name: Dr. Manjeet Singh UID: 21545 Recommended (Y/N): Yes

PAC Member 3 Name: Dr. Vishal Francis UID: 24813 Recommended (Y/N): Yes

Final Topic Approved by PAC: Investigation on the mechanical properties of the metamaterial structures under different
parameters

Overall Remarks: Approved

PAC CHAIRPERSON Name: 11108::Dr. Ankur Bahl Approval Date: 21 Nov 2024

5/1/2025 3:58:55 PM
 Abstract

This research explores the mechanical behavior and performance enhancement of re-entrant
metamaterials manufactured by FDM based 3D printing using PETG. This research
demonstrated auxetic properties, specifically a negative Poisson's ratio, via changes in
structural design rather than changes in material. Nine samples (S1-S9) were constructed by
varying three geometrical parameters: length ratio (V1/V2), re-entrant angle (Θ) and
thickness ratio (T1/T2). The design space was explored using the Taguchi method (with an
L9 orthogonal array) to find the most optimal combination of parameters in a systematic
approach. Mechanical testing was conducted on a UTM, and the load-displacement data was
investigated for lateral and axial deformation from which negative Poisson's ratio and
specific load were determined. The study found that auxetic performance and reasonable
specific load was best at V1/V2= 5, Θ= 45°, and T1/T2= 1. Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
was also performed to validate the experimental data and investigate deformation
characteristics. Overall, the research shows that geometry plays a predominant role in the
tuning of auxetic properties and sets a basis for lightweight, flexible, and energy absorbing
applications for engineering design.

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 Table Of Content
Title Page

Certificate 2

Declaration 3

Acknowledgement 4

Topic Approval Perfoma 5

Abstract 6

Table of content 7

Chapter 1. Introduction 8-9

Chapter 2. Literature Review 10-11

Chapter 3. Rationale and Scope of Study 12

Chapter 4. Objectives 13

Chapter 5. Material and Research Methodology 14-23

5.1 Material 14

5.2 Taguchi Design Of Experiment (DOE) 15-16

5.3 CAD Modeling and Printing 16-17

5.4 Experimentation 18-20

5.5 Numerical simulation using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 21-23

5.5.1 Meshing of the Geometry 21-22

5.5.2 Boundary Condition 22-23

Chapter 6. Results and Discussion 24-32

6.1 Mechanical Performance of re-entrant structure 24

6.2 Experimental Validation 25-29

6.3 Signal to Noise Ratio Analysis 29-32

Chapter 7. Conclusion and Future Scope 33-34

References 35-36

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 Chapter 1: Introduction
Metamaterials are those materials, which are designed to fulfill specific mechanical
functions through engineering of their internal microstructures. Metamaterials are
different compared to normal materials, which are made based on the materials from
which they are made or based on overall geometry. These are designed at the cellular
level to produce desired properties. The properties that these materials exhibit are
literally not found in nature, such as negative Poisson's ratios, negative stiffness,
negative compressibility, non-linear behaviour etc. [1] Because of these amazing
properties, mechanical metamaterials are expected to have an accentuated impact on
industrial, biomedical, and bioengineering applications. For example, mechanical
metamaterials can be utilized in tissue engineering scaffolds which require
mechanical support with certain properties that encourage tissue growth. [2]
Metamaterials have lots of voids and empty spaces due to their unique geometric
structure therefore decreasing their weight and making them useful for many ways
[3]. Metamaterial is optimized to be bistable. In this, under a certain load the unit cells
can switch between two configurations and any energy absorption happens in the unit
cells. These characteristics of this metamaterial provide new opportunities to design
multistable materials in energy absorption, impact resistance, and adaptive structures,
[4],[5] Zhang and lu studied Re-entrant honeycomb metamaterial have negative
Poisson's ration, they are defined auxetic material and are preferred for indentation
resistance, fracture toughness and energy absorption[6]. Zhao et al. investigated a
Octect-truss metamaterials have repeated unit structure. They show higher stiffness
and strength as compared to other porous structure, which regard themselves for
bearing load applications [7].
Mechanical metamaterials, to-date, have primarily been manufactured using additive
manufacturing techniques, such as 2D and 3D printing. [8], [9]. Additive
manufacturing is categorised into three main classes: ink based [10], [11], photo-
solidification based [12] and powder based methods. [13]. Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM) is prefered to the other current methods of 3D printing because of
its environmentally friendly use of biodegradable material, which makes it suitable for
use, compared to other manufacturing methods . The present study uses Bamboo Lab
A1 FDM 3D printer to produce re-entrant structures from PETG. The re-entrant
honeycomb structure is favourable because it is constructed so that it exhibits a higher

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 energy absorption capability to conventional honeycomb structures especially with
higher compression velocity[14]. The structure is displayed as a negative poisson's
ratio as it enhances and increases it's mechanical property[15]. The structures are
being used in medical devices as an Anti-pullout devices, like as a auxetic pedicle
screws, utilising the re-entrant honeycomb structure where their superior auxetic
behaviour prevents loosening and pullout of screw improves anchorage. Re-entrant
honeycomb auxetic materials are infact being used as Flexible Materials for Wearable
as they conform to shapes while maintaining integrity. The energy dissipation
behaviour makes good for vibration damping and applications like - aerospace,
construction, automotive industry, noise reduction and sound proofing. The structure
is regularly utilises in sandwich panels - particularly in aerospace & automotive
industries providing lightweight properties, energy absorption, high-strength; this is
useful on structural applications.
The proposed research project will utilize the material Polyethylene Terephthalate
Glycol (PETG) as the filament material for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) in
creating the re-entrant structures. PETG was chosen because of the combination of
strength, temperature tolerance and its ease of printability as shown in Table 2. PETG
allows for creation of strong and repeatable structures due to its strength and
temperature tolerance along with its ability to print complex geometries, such as
auxetic and re-entrant structures [16]. The shear strength of PETG allows for superior
layer adhesion. PETG also has low shrink and chemical resistant properties that
allows for what is quite easy to prototype and make functional parts. When compared
with other materials such as polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS) PETG has increased toughness, impact strength along with lower print
temperatures. PETG also has decreased hydrophilic properties than other materials
with durability in environmental conditions. All these traits are important when the
designed aspects of a printed re-entrant structure need to maintain mechanical
performance when tested and tested again [17].

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 Chapter 2: Literature Review
There have been many studies done by different researchers on this re-entrant
metamaterial. For example, Zhi Tao et al. studied re-entrant honeycomb metamaterial
that has hierarchical characteristics that shows tunable low frequency bandgaps,
where a standard honeycomb structure made of small re-entrant unit cells is created.
This method allows for better vibration damping and tunable properties to the
potential acoustic properties. In fact, the study showed that the bandgap properties
could be controlled through mechanical strain applied, so it is reasonable to
conjecture they may have applications in noise reducing and vibration attenuating
applications. [16]. Yan Yao et al. looked into the modified auxetic re-entrant
honeycomb structure, namely a re-entrant honeycomb modified with the addition of
curves to the ribs, which can improve energy absorption. The structure had two
stresses in both the numerical and experimental results during the compressive phase,
the second of which was the more dominant and could be altered by changing the rib
spaces . The article titled "Exploiting Nonlinearities via Geometric Engineering to
improve auxetic behaviour of re-entrant honeycomb metamaterials," described using a
geometric engineering approach utilizing nonlinearities to achieve improvement in
auxetic behaviour in re-entrant honeycomb metamaterials for application, and
examined the behaviours of the geometric options as thin strips and tubes and used
both geometrically exact beam theory and variational asymptotic method in this
examination [18]. Xue Gang et al. investigated the deformational capabilities of 2
sample configurations, a 3D printed hexagonal sample and a 3D printed re-entrant
honeycomb sample geometrically. The results showed that the 3D printed re-entrant
honeycomb sample exhibited better ductility and improved fracture resistance as
compared to the non-auxetic hexagon structure that was subject to a bending load
[19]. Furthermore, he found that a re-entrant honeycomb shape filled with foam had
better stiffness and did not allow for lateral buckling in comparison to its also re-
entrant hollowed condition with foam, while at the same time allowing for better
energy absorption [20]. The brief and distinctive characteristics discussed by these
previous studies indicate that auxetic metamaterials demonstrated better possible
applications in scientific fields, such as civil engineering, soft robotics, wireless
communication, and down to design for protective equipment . The work described in
this report utilized FDM additive manufacturing in producing a re-entrant structure.

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 To establish a systematic survey of all the possible congruencies of sample
configurations to arrive at all possible results possible when using the additive
manufacturing plant that was used for the re-entrant structure a statistical and
systematic method called the Taguchi L9 methodology - a statistical approach to
robust experimental design - was used. In this situation the experimental design was
isolating three key geometric parameters in the design identified as V1/V2 (verticle
length ratio), T1/T2 (wall thickness ratio), and θ (angle of re-entrancy). The
mechanical behaviours of all fabricated structures were tested using tensile testing.
The principal aim for testing the objects was to identify the sample structure with the
highest value of the negative Poisson's ratio (NPR). The work carried out in this
experimental study was to live to contribute to the greater understanding of auxetic
materials and the mechanical load behaviour of them structurally, so that further
advances can be made in the design and application of metamaterials.

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 Chapter 3 :Rationale and Scope of study
Auxetic metamaterials, especially re-entrant geometries, have emerged as a promising
innovative solution for applications requiring flexibility, energy absorption capability,
and structural robustness. Their unique behavior due to their negative Poisson's ratio
allows for lateral expansion during tensile loading, unlike conventional material
response. There has been a considerable amount of computational analyses on the
auxetic structure (Surjadi et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2018), but there remains a clear
disconnect between theory and reality, strongly highlighting the need for experimental
work using low-cost fabrication processes like Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM).

This work is motivated by the gap between theoretical predictions of auxetic behavior
and the actual practicality of that behavior being reproduced in an experiment using
3D printed techniques. Obviously, when we reproduce the properties of a bulk
material into a structure, mechanical performance can change drastically, which was
evident when transitioning from the positive natural Poisson's ratio of PETG material
in to a negative ratio through re-entrant geometry. Clearly, experimentally observing
this role of 3D printed re-entrant geometry is fundamental for utilizing these
structures in real-world engineering applications.

The objectives of this research include designing, 3D printing, and mechanically

characterizing nine re-entrant samples with three different geometric parameters, the
V1/V2 ratio, the Theta, and the T1/T2 ratio. Mechanical testing of all samples will be
done using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in order to obtain an axial and lateral
strain from which the Poisson's ratio and specific load can be calculated. The
functional design of experiments called the Taguchi method will be used to identify
the best combination of geometric parameters for auxetic performance.

Based on the independent and dependent relationships possible for each parameter,
the results will lead to an experimental contribution that can help optimize the
formation of re-entrant structures in order to create advanced metamaterials for
lightweight flexible and impact absorbing applications.

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 Chapter 4:Objective
The primary objective of this report is to provide an in-depth exploration of
metamaterials, their unique characteristics, and their potential applications across
various domains. Specific objectives include:
• To select the geometric parameter of re-entrant honeycomb structure.
• To perform the Finite Element Analysis based upon the selected parameters.
• To evaluate the environmental implications of using sustainable materials like
Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PETG) in metamaterial design to optimize
the structural parameter.
• To provide the detailed analysis of simulation and experimental studies that
underscore the performance advantages of metamaterials.
• To identify challenges and purpose for future research directions for the
advancement of metamaterials for negative Poisson’s ratio.

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 Chapter 5:Material and Research Methodology
5.1 Material:
For this research, the thermoplastic material that was used for additive
manufacturing was polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified (PETG) filament
[Table 1], purchased commercially from Shenzhen eSUN Industrial Co., Ltd., a
well-known manufacturer of 3D printing materials based in China. eSUN PETG
was selected primarily due to its valuable properties of toughness, ease of
printability as well as mechanical performance and is suitable for both prototyping
and the manufacture of functional parts.
The eSUN PETG filament used in this work had a nominal diameter of 1.75 mm
with a diameter tolerance of ±0.05 mm which ensured consistent extrusion and
dimensional accuracy when printing with fused-deposition modeling (FDM).
eSUN PETG is a glycol-modified polyester derived from the resin polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) where the incorporation of glycol into PET reduces the
inherent brittleness and promotes improvements with clarity and impact
resistance. eSUN PETG is amorphous, prevents crystallization while printing and
provides better adhesion between layers as compared to standard crystalline PET.
The material does not contain styrene, halogenated materials, nor heavy metals,
and therefore adheres to RoHS and REACH environmental compliance .

Table 1. Properties of PETG

Material Properties Values
Tensile strength ~50-60MPa
Elongation at Break ~20-25%
Young’s Modulus ~2.95 GPa (2950MPa)
Flexural Strength ~70-90Mpa
Glass Transition Temp ~80°C
Melting Point ~230-260°C
Hardness Shore D ~75-80
Density ~1.27 g/cm³
Poisson’s ratio ~0.4

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 5.2 Taguchi Design of Experiment (DOE)
The Taguchi method was developed by Dr. Geinchi Taguchi to improve product
quality and process performance. It is an experimental design technique, focuses on
optimizing processes and designs by making them robust against noise, i.e. variations,
while minimizing the number of experimental trials required. In this study L9
orthogonal array was used, one of the most commonly used configurations in Taguchi
designs. This configuration was chosen because the study content mainly three
parameters: V1/V2 (length ratio), theta (the re-entrant angle) and T1/T2 (thickness
ratio). The L9 array organized the each three parameters at 3 levels (Table 2) and
gave the total combinations of 9 samples (Table 3).

Table 2.
V1/V2 T1/T2 Theta
L1 3 0.5 30°
L2 5 1 45°
L3 7 2 60°

V1

theta

V2
22
T1 T2

Figure 1 3D image of Unit cell of re-entrant structure

Table 3.Geometric configurations of a unit cell of 9 samples of re-entrant structure.

Samples V1/V2 theta T1/T2

S1 3 30° 0.5

S2 3 45° 1

S3 3 60° 2

S4 5 30° 1

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 S5 5 45° 2

S6 5 60° 0.5

S7 7 30° 2

S8 7 45° 0.5

S9 7 60° 1

5.3 CAD Model and Printing

CAD model of 9 samples were made based on the ratio, as shown in Table 6. The
dimension of each parameters was systematically varied across samples to investigate
their influence on the auxetic behaviour (Table 4). The CAD model for re-entrant
structure was made in CREO software. Once the geometric models were finalised, the
CAD files were converted into STL file (Stereilithography). The files used in this
research were sliced with Bambu Studio, a proprietary slicer produced by Bambu Lab.
The experimental samples were created with the Bambu Lab A1 3D printer, high-
quality FDM printer produced by Bambu Lab, with 40% infill density for all samples
to enable flexibility and observable auxetic deformation.

Table 4 Assigned dimension to V1, V2, T1 and T2 ,maintain the ratio

respectively

sample V1 V2 V1/V2 theta T1 T2 T1/T2

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
S1 15 5 3 30° 1 2 0.5

S2 12 4 3 45° 1.28 1.28 1

S3 12 4 3 60° 1.24 1.2 2

S4 10 2 5 30° 1 1 1

S5 20 4 5 45° 2.68 1.36 2

S6 15 3 5 60° 1.2 2.4 0.5

S7 21 3 7 30° 1.95 0.99 2

S8 14 2 7 45° 1.4 2.8 0.5

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 S9 7 1 7 60° 1 1 1

Figure 2 sketch of Figure 3 CAD Figure 4 Patterned

unit cell model of unit cell CAD model

Figure 5 STL file Figure 6 slicing

Figure 7 3D printing Figure 8 3D printed

through Bambu Lab A1 Sample

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 5.4 Experimentation
The mechanical tests of the 3D-printed re-entrant PETG specimens was conducted
using a Universal Testing Machine, equipped with a 10 kN load cell. The tests
were conducted under displacement control at a constant crosshead
speed of 2 mm/min, at room temperature under ambient conditions as shown in
Figure 11. It was done to evaluate the auxetic behavior under tensile loading. The
primary objective was to assess the Poisson’s ratio, deformation characteristics,
and specific load-bearing capacity of the printed structures.

Figure 10 clamped
sample

Figure 9 3D model of UTM

with clapmed sample

Figure 11 Universal Testing Machine

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 Table 5 Images of samples before testing

Sample V1/V2 Theta T1/T2 Before Testing

S1 3 30° 0.5

S2 3 45° 1

S3 3 60° 2

S4 5 30° 1

S5 5 45° 2

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 S6 5 60° 0.5

S7 7 30° 2

S8 7 45° 0.5

S9 7 60° 1

Optimum sample 5 45° 1

(in terms of negative
Poission’s ratio
from S/N plot)

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 5.5 Numerical simulation using Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
The mechanical response of the engineered structure was evaluated with Finite
Element Analysis (FEA) for the purposes of identifying directional deformation
under tensile loading and measurement of the effective Poisson’s ratio for the
optimum sample from S/N plot (discussed in result and discussion section). The
importance of this numerical analysis is fundamental to understanding the auxetic
or conventional structure response of re-entrant structures. The simulation was
conducted on ANSYS, a favoured FEA package. PETG (Polyethylene
Terephthalate Glycol) was assigned to the simulation; as it is used experimentally.
The mechanical properties (dependent on the direction of strain) used in the model
were those contained within Table 1. These attributes are similar to data collected
based on experimental characterization as well as the data supplied by PETG
filament manufacturers used for 3D printing.

5.5.1 Meshing of the Geometry

The first step in the simulation process was the discretization of the
geometry into finite elements. A structured mesh was employed using
quadrilateral element to ensure better accuracy and convergence of results.
The meshed model is shown in Figure 12. The mesh density was selected
after mesh independence verification to balance computational cost and
solution accuracy.

Figure 12 Meshed re-entrant

structure

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 Figure 13 Element quality analysis is performed on re-entrant structure

5.5.2 Boundary Conditions

The structure was subjected to standard loading conditions to simulate

the mechanical environment:
• One side of the structure (left edge) was fully constrained (fixed) to
prevent displacement in both X and Y directions.
• The opposite side (right edge) was subjected to uniform tensile
displacement/load in the X-direction.
• The top and bottom surfaces were kept free to allow natural
expansion or contraction.
These conditions are visualized in Figure 14. This setup mimics tensile
testing as conducted in a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) environment.

Figure 14 Boundary condition

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 Figure 15 Deformation in Yaxis Figure 16 Deformation in X axis

Estimation of Poisson’s ratio

The effective Poisson’s ratio was determined using the standard formula:
∆𝑌⁄
𝑣= 𝜀𝑦 /𝜀𝑥 = 𝑊⁄
∆𝑋⁄
𝐿
Where :
• ∆𝑌 = Transverse deformation (from simulation result)
• ∆𝑋 = Axial deformation (from simulation result)
• 𝑊 = Original width of the structure
• L = Original length of the structure

𝑣 = -0.7

This negative value of Poisson’s ratio shows that the structure exhibits auxetic
behaviour under the tested loading conditions.

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 Chapter 6:Results and Discussion
This section presents the mechanical and deformation behavior of additively
manufactured re-entrant metamaterial structures while subjected to tensile loading.
Experimental tests, using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM), were performed to
help understand the effects of density, design parameters, and material behavior.
Experimental results were then compared with simulations from Finite Element
Analysis simulation. We discuss the implications of a negative Poisson's ratio and the
use of Taguchi optimization as a successful means of tuning the design.

6.1 Mechanical performance of Re-entrant Structures

The specimens with 40% PETG infill displayed in Figure 18 improved auxetic
properties over those with 100% infill shown in Figure 17. The decrease in density
pertained to the internal cell walls deforming in order to deflect outwards when
loaded causing the negative Poisson's ratio, due to the re-entrant mechanism, to be
activated again (Grima et al. 2000) [21]. Stiffness was dominant and did not allow
auxetic motion induced from deformation at smaller densities.

Before Test After Test

Figure 17 At 100% infill density, the structure didn’t

open after testing

Before Test After Test

Figure 18 At 40% infill density, the structure opened well after

testing and showed auxetic behavior

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 6.2 Experimental Validation
This section analyzes the experimental results of nine re-entrant metamaterial
samples (S1-S9) [Table 6]. The main outcome of interest will be how these
variations influence auxetic behavior, peak load, and specific load values.

Table 6 Experimental values of Negative Poisson’s ratio and specific load for all the samples

Sampl V1 V2 V1/V Thet T1 T2 T1/T Lateral Axial NPR Pea Weigh Specifi
e (mm (mm 2 a (mm (mm 2 (mm) (mm) k t c
) ) ) ) Loa (gm) Load
d (N/gm)
(N)
S1 15 5 3 30° 1 2 0.5 0.0100 0.0367 - 315 6 52.593
9 0.272 .56
S2 12 4 3 45° 1.28 1.28 1 0.0357 0.0505 - 331 3 110.4
1 0.707 .24
S3 12 4 3 60° 2.4 1.2 2 0.0357 0.0565 -0.632 678 3 226.05
.16
S4 10 2 5 30° 1 1 1 0.0227 0.0429 - 253 3 84.61
0.529 .82
S5 20 4 5 45° 2.68 1.36 2 0.0454 0.0582 - 479 7 68.46
0.780 .22
S6 15 3 5 60° 1.2 2.4 0.5 0.0606 0.0686 - 260 4 65.17
0.883 .68
S7 21 3 7 30° 1.95 0.99 2 0.0222 0.0765 - 245 6 40.83
0.290
S8 14 2 7 45° 1.4 2.8 0.5 0.0333 0.0764 - 265 5 53.12
0.436 .58
S9 7 1 7 60° 1 1 1 0.0666 0.1538 - 254 1 254.8
0.433 .8

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 Figure 19 Sample clamped in UTM before and after
testing

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
3

Figure 20 Images of 5 broken samples (S1-S5) after testing.

S6 S7 S8 S9

Figure 21 Images of 4 broken samples (S6-S9) after testing.

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 Figure 22 S3 gave the best result Figure 23 S2 performed average among
among all samples considering both all samples considering both specific
specific load and Negative Poission’s load and Negative Poission's ratio
ratio

Figure 24 S7 performed the most poor

among all samples

The experimental outcomes of the re-entrant metamaterial samples have validated

the geometric parameters dependence upon auxetic property. Every single sample
registered Poisson's ratios as negative (auxetic), consistent with the standard re-
entrant design . Sample S6 was the most negative at -0.8833, followed closely by
S5 at -0.7800. These two samples demonstrated greater lateral expansion under
tensile load, distinguishing themselves from the rest of the samples. Sample S7
was the least auxetic, with a Poisson's ratio of -0.2901, making it the worst
performer of all the samples.

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 Effect of Theta on re-entrant structure:
The theta (internal angle) clearly had a significant effect. The stronger the theta
was in a range from 30° to 60°, the more magnitude there was to the negative
Poisson's ratio. Samples with a theta = 60° such as S3 and S6 had stronger auxetic
response than S7 which was a 30°. Previous research has confirmed that the larger
the internal angle, the greater lateral deformation in a re-entrant example (Grima
& Evans, 2000) [21].

0
Negative Poisson's ratio

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Samples

Figure 25 Graph of samples vs Negative Poisson’s

ratio

Effect of T1/T2 on re-entrant structure:

The T1/T2 ratio (strut thickness) made a significant impact as well. Samples with
T1/T2 = 1 (S6 = 0.5, S2 = 1) had better auxetic performance than samples with
T1/T2 = 2 (S3, S7). For T1/T2 ≤ 1, due to the lower thickness ratio resulted in
greater rotational motion in the unit cell which is an important component of
auxetic behavior (Kolken & Zadpoor, 2017) [22]. However, when the T1/T2 ratio
was increased, the structure becomes more rigid thereby meaning less lateral
deformation was required for strong auxetic behavior.

Effect of V1/V2 on re-entrant structure:

Finally, the V1/V2 ratio (arm length ratio) was also very influential. Sample S2,
S3, and S6 with moderate V1/V2 ratios (3 - 5 ) had significantly higher negative
Poisson's ratios than samples S7, S8, and S9 with higher V1/V2 (7); this is due to
increased vertical stiffness restricting the rotation of unit cells under tensile stress
(Yang et al., 2004) [23].

28 | P a g e
 Performance of the tested samples considering both Negative Poisson’s ratio
and specific load
Among all re-entrant metamaterial designs tested, Sample S3 performed the best
[Figure 21] (negative Poisson's ratio of -0.6318, peak load of 678.16 N, specific
load of 226.05 N/g S3 weight of 3 grams) due to its well-optimized geometry,
specifically, a V1/V2 configuration of 3, theta of 60°, and a T1/T2 ratio of 2, so
the inward rib deflections and nodal rotation contributing to auxeticity, and load-
bearing efficiency (Zheng et al., 2022) [4]. Similarly, Sample S2 had the same
V1/V2 as Sample S3, however had a theta grade of 45°, and a T1/T2 of 1;
resulting in S2 having one of the most negative Poisson's ratio of -0.7071, while
simultaneously with a peak load and specific load of (331.24 N) and (110.4 N/g)
respectively with average performance, seen as good auxeticity, but structural load
efficiency was poor. Sample S7 shows to have the lowest performance with a
Poisson's ratio of -0.2901, peak load of only 245 N, then the lowest specific load
(40.83 N/g).lthough S7 had a high V1/V2 of 7, and T1/T2 of 1, the geometry of
S7 did not anneal sufficiently with enough nodal rotation or lateral expansion. S7
did not have sufficient auxetic response and structural load efficiency (Grima et
al., 2016) [21]. This discussion with the obtaining testing results, allows for
geometric tuning to improve from auxeticity benefits significantly; for where
effective mechanical strength and better auxeticity all structural parameters need
to be balanced ( L a k e s , 1987) .

6.3 Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio Analysis

In the present work, the Taguchi method was used to optimize the geometry of re-
entrant metamaterials, the Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio to find the most robust
design parameters. The "larger-the-better" S/N ratios sorted the the largest
negative Poisson's ratio [Figure 24], indicating improved auxetic behavior. Based
on the trial and error analyses conducted, the most favorable parameter
configuration was V1/V2 = 5, Theta = 45°, and T1/T2 = 1, producing a negative
Poisson's ratio of −0.724 and a specific load of 193.36 N/g [Table 7]. While S6
provided a marginally higher negative Poisson's ratio of −0.883, it also had a very
modest specific load of only 65.17 N/g. This suggests that while S6 may be a
better auxetic deformation sample, it does seem to be structurally inefficient under
29 | P a g e
 the load applied. On the contrary, the optimum sample identified through S/N
analysis represents a more balanced design that combines a substantially negative
Poisson's ratio with a very large load, and implies a structurally robust auxetic
design with this configuration. Therefore, the optimum sample identified with the
Taguchi optimization was the clear candidate for any practical applications
requiring some low-level and high-level combined flexibility and strength,
confirming that the Taguchi method is a highly effective method for optimizing
specific design configurations of the re-entrant metamaterials.

Figure 26: S/N plot of samples vs Negative

Poission’s ratio

Table 7 Experimental values of Optimum sample

Sample V1 V2 V1/V Thet T1 T2 T1/T Later Axia NP Pea Weig Specif

(mm) (mm 2 a (mm (mm 2 al l R k ht ic
) ) ) (mm) (mm Loa (gm) Load
) d (N/gm
(N) )

Optimu 10 2 5 45° 1 1 1 0.25 0.34 - 580. 3 193.39

m 5 0.7 16
sample 24

30 | P a g e
 Figure 27: Tested optimum
sample in terms of negative
Poission’s ratio

Figure 28: Optimum sample, having highest Figure 29: S6 gave highest Negative
Negative Poisson’s ratio found through Poission’s vaue among the Tested samples
Taguchi method

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

To determine how much each parameter contributes to the variation in Poisson’s

ratio, an ANOVA analysis was conducted. The Table 11 presented below provides
information pertaining to degrees of freedom (DF), sequential sum of squares (Seq
SS), mean squares (Adj MS), F-values, and P-values. The results of the ANOVA
suggest that V1/V2 has the greatest contribution to Poisson’s ratio with 53.48%,
with Theta contributing 38.29%. T1/T2 has a minor contribution to the response
variation at 0.89%. The remaining variance of 7.32% is measurement error or
other uncontrolled variation [Table 12] .

31 | P a g e
 Table 8 ANOVA performed on the parameters of re-entrant structure.
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P

V1/V2 2 0.196200 0.19200 0.098100 7.30 0.120

Theta 2 0.140467 0.140467 0.070233 5.23 0.161

T1/T2 2 0.003267 0.003267 0.001633 0.12 0.892

Residual error 2 0.026867 0.026867 0.013433

Total 8 0.366800

Table 9 Contribution of the parameters

Source Contribution
V1/V2 53.48%
Theta 38.29%
T1/T2 0.89%
Residual error 7.32%

32 | P a g e
 Chapter 7:Conclusion and Future Scope
This research extensively examined the mechanical behavior of re-entrant
metamaterial structures manufactured with Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
techniques, instead of conventionally withdrawing material. The transition to re-
entrant lattice geometries from solid PETG resulted in a notable change in mechanical
behavior, specifically the transition from a positive Poisson's ratio to negative values.
This transition is due to the geometry induced auxetic effect of the re-entrant
structure, where the deformation mechanics are dictated by angular and strut-bending
movements, rather than axial stretching, as is characteristic of traditional structures.
The study examined the geometric parameters of the design, including the V1/V2,
Theta, and T1/T2 parameters, and were able to show that design architecture is the
most impactful in determining auxetic performance.
The Taguchi method-based Signal-to-Noise (S/N) analysis of the 9 samples indicated
that optimal design parameters for maximum negative Poisson's ratio, and high
specific load-bearing efficiency were observed, at the following configurations: high
internal angle (Theta = 45°–60°), low to moderate thickness ratio (T1/T2 ≤ 1), and
moderate vertical to horizontal member ratio (V1/V2 = 3–5). Comparison of
mechanical performance showed that designs with the reported geometric
characteristics demonstrated strong auxetic behavior (more negative Poisson's ratio)
and retained balanced structural integrity with low material weight, and hence are
more attractive for applications looking to use lightweight technologies for
applications such as cushioning, impact absorption, and biomechanical devices.
Specifically, Sample S3 and optimum sample found through S/N ratio are of
significant interest because of their high and negative Poisson’s ratio and low
structural weight, resulting in a high specifies load.
In conclusion, this study has shown that geometry is the primary factor influencing
the auxetic performance of the re-entrant metamaterials. Structural re-entrant forms of
the type tested in this study create tunable mechanical properties, where the same base
material would be used. This study has provided a strong base for the future design of
functional, customizable metamaterials for aerospace, biomedical scaffolds, protective
equipment, and flexible electronics.
Developing these findings, future research could take a form of multi-material
printing to improve the auxetic response and customize mechanical gradients within a

33 | P a g e
 single structure. Research could also take a direction of dynamic loading states such
as fatigue and impact properties to understand long-term functionality. In addition,
scaling structures like those discussed here to micro-scale and nano-scale level
through advanced additive manufacturing methods would also open applications to
micro-robotics, soft-actuators, and bio-inspired systems. The employment of Finite
Element Method (FEM) simulations, and machine learning-based design
optimizations could greatly reduce the timeline for developing new auxetic
metamaterials that are customized to application-specific demands while being
efficient.

34 | P a g e
References

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36 | P a g e
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