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Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

❖ Make reasonable estimates of value of physical quantities [of those quantities that are discussed in the
topic of this grade].
❖ Use the conventions for indicating unit, as set out in the SI units.
❖ Express derived units as products or quotients of the SI base units.
❖ Analyze the homogeneity of physical equation [through dimensional analysis]
❖ Derive formulae in simple cases [through using dimensional analysis]
❖ Analyze and critique the accuracy and precision of data collected by measuring instruments.
❖ Justify why all measurements contain some uncertainty.
❖ Assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity [By simple addition of absolute, fractional or percentage
uncertainties]
❖ Quote answers with correct scientific notations, number of significant figures and units in all experimental
and numerical results.

Importance of Physics
Physics is the most fundamental branch of physical sciences. It gives us the
laws and principles to understand nature and the world around us.
• It helps us to understand other sciences like, Astronomy, Chemistry,
Geology, Biology, and Health Sciences.
Physics has changed our lives. Its tools, techniques, and inventions have turned
our dreams into reality — bringing comfort and progress to our daily life through
science, technology, and engineering.
Role of Physics in Modern World
Information technology (based on physics) has changed our world. Fast
communication systems have connected people worldwide, making the world
feel like a global village Computer chips are made from
Physics as an Experimental Science silicon, which is obtained from
Physics is based on experiments. sand. It is up to us whether we
• It uses the scientific method, which gives importance to accurate make a sand castle or a
measurement of physical quantities. computer out of it.
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1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

Physical Quantity:
A physical quantity is a measurable property of an object that can be Areas of Physics
described using a number and a unit. Mechanics
Examples: Heat & thermodynamics
Electromagnetism
Length, mass, time, force, speed, etc.
Optics
Types of Physical Quantities Sound
1. Base Quantities: Hydrodynamics
The quantities which are not defined in terms of other physical quantities Special relativity
are called base quantities. General relativity
• Base quantities are the smallest set of those physical quantities from Quantum mechanics
which other physical quantities can be defined. They are seven in Atomic physics
number. Molecular physics
• Length, Mass, Time, Electric Current, Thermodynamic temperature, Nuclear physics
Amount of substance and Intensity of light are seven base quantities. Solid state physics
Measurement of Base Quantity: Particle physics
It involves two steps: Superconductivity
i. Choice of a Standard: Superfluidity
A standard or reference is chosen for the quantity being measured. Plasma physics
ii. Establishment of a Procedure: Magnetohydrodynamics
For comparing the quantity to be measured with the standard, so that a Space physics
number and a unit is determined as the measure of that quantity.
Interdisciplinary areas of
Note: Measurements must be reliable and accurate so that they can be used
Physics
easily and effectively.
Astrophysics
2. Derived Quantities:
Biophysics
Derived quantities, on the other hand, are dependent on base quantities.
Chemical physics
• Derived Quantities are defined using combinations of base
Engineering physics
quantities.
Geophysics
• For example, velocity is a derived quantity that depends on Medical physics
length and time. Other examples of derived quantities Physical oceanography
include acceleration and force. Physics of music
Importance:
The foundation of physics relies on physical quantities, which are used to express the laws of physics.
These quantities must be measured accurately to understand the physical world.
1.2 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
Definition:
In 1960, an international committee set definitions and Table 1.1
standards for physical quantities. This system is known as the System Physical
SI Units Symbols
International (SI). quantity
• SI units are used globally by the scientific community and by Length meter m
almost all nations. Mass kilogram kg
• The system consists of two types of units: base units and derived Time second s
Electric current ampere A
units.
Thermodynamic kelvin K
Base Units:
temperature
Base units are the units used to measure fundamental physical
Intensity of light candela cd
quantities.
Seven base units are given in table 1.1.
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Amount of mole mol

substance
Note: For smaller or larger quantities, prefixes such as milli, micro, kilo, etc. can be used with base units.
Derived Units:
Derived units are obtained by combining base units and are used to measure derived quantities.
Some examples are given in Table 1.2."
Important:
In 1995, both the unit of plane angle and solid angle were included in derived units.
Table 1.2
Physical quantity Unit Symbol In terms of base units
Plane angle radian rad Dimensionless
Solid angle steradian Sr Dimensionless
Force newton N kg m s-2
Work joule J N m = kg m2 s-2
Power watt W J s-1 = kg m2 s-3
Electric charge coulomb C As
Pressure pascal Pa N m-2 = kg m-1 s-2
Additional Units:
Category Units Field/Usage
Angles Degree (°), Arcminute Geometry, astronomy
(′), Arcsecond (″)
Time Minute, Hour, Day, General timekeeping
Year
Logarithmic Units Bel (B), Decibel (dB) Acoustics, Electronics
Scientific non-metric Atomic mass unit (u), Physics, Atomic and
electronvolt (eV) Particle studies
Metric Supplementary Liter (L), Tonne (t) Volume, large mass
Pressure Units Bar, Millibar, Kilobar Meteorology,
Engineering
Physical Units Angstrom (Å), Barn (b) Physics, Astronomy
Area Units Acre, Hectare Land measurement
Nautical Units Nautical Mile, Knot Navigation, Maritime
Scientific Notation:
Numbers are represented in standard form called scientific notation which uses
powers of ten.
• In the internationally accepted form, there should be only one non-
zero digit left of decimal.
Example:
• When the decimal is moved from right to left, power of 10 is positive.

For example: The number 134.7 is written 1.347 x 102.

• When decimal is moved from left to right, power of ten is negative.
For example: The number 0.0023 is written as 2.3 x 10-3.
Prefixes:
Introduction
Prefixes are used to indicate the order of magnitude in steps of 1000, providing an easy way to express very
large or very small numbers.
• It helps to eliminate non-significant digits.
• SI also includes four additional prefixes centi-(10-2), deci-(10-1), deca-(101), hecto-(102).
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SLO 1- Make reasonable estimates of value of physical quantities

Instrument Least count Range Suitable for
Metre rule 1 mm (0.1 cm) 0 – 100 cm Small to medium flat objects.
0 – 150 mm or Measuring internal and external diameter,
Vernier calipers 0.1 mm (0.01 cm)
0 – 15 cm small lengths, depth.
Very small length e.g. diameter of a thin
Screw gauge 0.01 mm (0.001 cm) 0 – 25 mm
wire, thickness of sheet of a paper

1. For main scale reading, read the main-scale zero 1. Read the main scale at the datum line:
mark at the datum line, which lies between 2.6 cm Main scale reading (M.S.R)
and 2.7 cm; therefore M.S.R = 3.5 mm.
Main scale reading (M.S.R) = 2.6 cm.
2. On the circular scale, the 17th division
2. On vernier scale 9th division is coinciding with main
coincides with the datum line, so circular
scale, so vernier scale reading (V.S.R):
scale reading (C.S.R) will be:
V.S.R = 9 × L.C = 9 × 0.01 cm = 0.09 cm
C.S.R = 17 × L.C = 17 × 0.01 mm = 0.17 mm
3. Observed Value = M.S.R + V.S.R 3. Observed Value = M.S.R + C.S.R
= 2.6 + 0.09 = 2.69 cm = 3.5 + 0.17 = 3.67 mm
Corrected value = Observed value - Zero error Corrected value = Observed value - Zero error
Zero Error:
Instrument Zero Error Type How It Appears Correction
Vernier Vernier scale zero right of Subtract error: Measured –
Positive
Callipers main-scale zero (zero error)
Vernier Vernier scale zero left of Add error: Measured +
Negative
Callipers main-scale zero (absolute value of zero error)
Circular scale zero below Subtract error: Measured –
Screw Gauge Positive
main reference line (zero error)
Circular-scale zero above Add error: Measured +
Screw Gauge Negative
main scale reference line (absolute value of zero error)
QUICK RECAP
Base Quantities (7 in SI):
o Length (m), Mass (kg), Time (s), Current (A), Temperature (K), Luminous Intensity (cd), Amount of
Substance (mol).
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Derived Quantities: Products and quotients of base quantities (e.g., speed = distance/time).
Scientific Notation:
o Write as a ×10n (e.g., 0.0023=2.3×10-3).
o Rule: Only 1 non-zero digit left of the decimal.
o Prefixes only change magnitude, not dimensions (e.g., 1 km = 103 m).

TEST YOURSELF
1. Name the quantity which can be measure by using base unit ‘kg m2 s– 3”:
a) Weight b) Pressure c) Power d) Work
2. The different magnitudes of same physical quantities are measured by comparing them to.
a) available scale b) standard size
c) each other d) other physical quantities
18
3. Which prefix represents 10 ?
a) Milli b) atto c) exa d) Pico
4. A derived unit can be expressed as:
a) A product of base units b) A quotient of base units
c) Both (a) and (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b)
5. The correct scientific notation for 0.0023 is:
a) 2.3×10−2 b) 2.3×10−3 c) 23×10−4 d) 0.23×10−2
6. The correct representation of unit of force:
a) newton b) Newton c) N d) Both (a) and (c)
7. Which of the following is least multiple:
(a) pico b) femto c) nano (d) atto
-1 -2
8. kgm s is the unit of.
(a) force b) work (c) pressure (d) momentum
9. The ratio of 1 nanometer to 1 attometer is:
(a) 109 (b) 108 (c) 10-9 (d) 10-8
10. A meter rule can measure lengths accurately up to:
a) 0.1 mm b) 0.01 mm c) 0.1 cm d) 1 cm
11. The main scale reading of a Vernier caliper is 1.2 cm, and the 6th division of the Vernier scale coincides
with the main scale. If the least count is 0.01 cm, the total reading is:
a) 1.206 cm b) 1.26 cm c) 1.6 cm d) 1.20 cm
12. A screw gauge shows a zero error where the zero of the circular scale is below the reference line. The
correction needed is:
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Cannot be determined
13. Which instrument is most suitable for measuring the diameter of a thin wire?
a) Meter rule b) Vernier caliper c) Screw gauge d) Measuring tape
14. If the pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and the circular scale has 100 divisions, the least count is:
a) 0.001 mm b) 0.01 mm c) 0.1 mm d) 1 mm
15. A Vernier caliper is used instead of a meter rule when:
a) The object is very long b) Higher precision is needed
c) The object is irregularly shaped d) Only approximate measurements are required
16. A meter rule is used to measure the length of an object. If the reading is taken to the nearest millimeter,
what is the uncertainty?
a) ± 1 mm b) ± 0.5 mm c) ± 0.1 mm d) ± 2 mm
17. Which of the following measurements is typically done using a Vernier caliper?
a) Diameter of a ball b) Thickness of a sheet of paper
c) Height of a building d) Volume of a liquid
18. What is the most appropriate instrument for measuring the thickness of a small coin?
a) Meter rule b) Vernier caliper
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c) Micrometer screw gauge d) Digital thermometer

19. In a screw gauge, one complete rotation of the thimble is equal to 0.5 mm, and there are 50 divisions on
the circular scale. If the reading shows 3 complete rotations with the circular scale reading 30 divisions,
what is the measurement?
a) 3.15 mm b) 3.50 mm c) 3.75 mm d) 1.8 mm
20. The knot is an additional SI unit for measuring:
a) Speed of ships/aircraft b) Volume of liquids
c) Pressure in oceans d) Electrical resistance
21. The barn (b) is a unit used in nuclear physics to measure:
a) Energy of particles b) Cross-sectional area of nuclei
c) Radioactive decay time d) Magnetic field strength
22. Which phenomenon has the shortest period in the given data?
a) Visible light waves b) Vibration of an atom
c) Radio waves d) Audible sound

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
c b c c b d d c a c b b c b b
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
b a c d a b a
1.3 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
Why does uncertainty appear in measurement?
Every instrument is calibrated to a specific smallest division, which limits its accuracy. When you take reading
with an instrument, its smallest division or graduation on the scale determines the limit of measurement. Therefore,
every measured quantity has some uncertainty.
Absolute Uncertainty:
When a measurement is taken, it is rounded to the nearest graduation or marking on the scale.
The maximum uncertainty is estimated as the smallest division of the instrument. This is called absolute
uncertainty.
It can be estimated using the smallest division. For Example, if a meter rule is graduated in millimeters, its
absolute uncertainty is 1 mm.
Example: if one edge of the book coincides with the 10.0 cm mark and the other with 33.5 cm, the
uncertainty is given by:
(33.5 cm ± 0.05 cm) - (10.0 cm ± 0.05 cm) = 23.5 cm ± 0.1 cm
This means the true length of the book is between 23.4 cm and 23.6 cm, with the maximum uncertainty being
±0.05 cm, or 0.1 cm in total. It is equal to the least count of metre rule.
Types of Uncertainty
1. Fractional Uncertainty:
Fractional uncertainty is calculated as:
Absolute uncertainty
Fractional uncertainty = Measured value
2. Percentage Uncertainty:
Percentage uncertainty is calculated as:
Absolute uncertainty
Percentage uncertainty = Measured value × 100 %
Uncertainty in Digital Instruments
Some modern measuring instruments have a digital scale. We generally estimate one digit beyond what is
certain. If the last digit fluctuates by 1 or 2, we record that last digit. If the last digit fluctuates by more than 2, it may
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indicate that the reading is influenced by external factors like air currents. A large fluctuation suggests the displayed
digit might not be reliable.
Indication of Uncertainty
The uncertainty in a recorded value is often shown using significant figures. When a measurement is recorded
with significant figures, the last digit represents an estimate, indicating the accuracy of the measurement.

1.4 To derive the formula for centripetal force, required to keep an object moving along a circle with
uniform speed. Assume that it depends on the mass of object, radius of the circle and uniform speed.
According to the given assumptions, we can write:
F  ma vb rc (1)
Simplifying equation (1) gives:
F = (constant) ma vb rc (2)
Solve for Exponents:
[F] = [ma] [vb] [rc] (constant has no dimension)
-2 a -1 b c
[MLT ] = [M] [LT ] [L]
[MLT-2] = [Ma Lb+c T-b] (3)
By comparing the powers of M, L, and T on both sides:
a = 1; b+c = 1; -b = -2
Or,
a = 1; b = 2; c = -1
So, equation (2) becomes:
F = (constant) m v2 r-1
mv2
Hence, F = r

EXERCISE QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.1 The purpose of study and discoveries in Physics is:
(a) the probing of interstellar spaces
(b) the betterment of mankind
(c) the development of destructive technology in warfare
(d) development in aesthetics for the world
Tip: Physics aims to improve human life through scientific advancements.
1.2 The length of a steel pipe is in between 0.7 m to 0.8 m. Identify from the following, the appropriate
instrument to be used for an accuracy of 0.001 m.
(a) A micrometer screw gauge (b) A metre rule
(c) ten metres measuring tape (d) A Vernier Callipers
Tip: According to given measurement metre rule matches both the precision and range.
1.3 The diameter of a steel ball is measured using a Vernier calliper and its
reading is shown in the figure. What is the diameter of the steel ball?

(a) 1.30 cm (b) 1.39 cm (c) 1.40 cm (d) 1.31 cm

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1.4 The figure shows the reading on a micrometer screw gauge used to
measure diameter of a thin rod. One complete turn of the thimble is 0.50
mm and there are 50 lines on the circular scale. The diameter of the rod
is:
(a) 3.67 mm (b) 3.17 mm
(c) 4.17 mm (d) 4.10 mm
Tip: Main scale + (circular scale × least count). Here, least count = 0.50 mm / 50 = 0.01 mm.
1.5 The number of significant figures of a measurement are defined as:
(a) they reflect the accuracy of the observation in a measurement
(b) they are the figures which are reasonably reliable
(c) they are the accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit of a measurement
(d) all of the above
1.6 The number of significant figures in the measured mass 2500.0 kg is:
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five
Tip: Trailing zeros after a decimal point are significant. Here, all digits (2,5,0,0,0) count.
1.7 The sum 12 kg+2.02 kg +5.1 kg according to appropriate precision is:
(a) 19 kg (b) 19.0kg (c) 19.1kg (d) 19.12 kg
Tip: Final precision matches the least precise term (12 kg has no decimal, but 5.1 kg limits it to 1 decimal
place). Adding decimals (e.g., 19.1 kg) would falsely suggest precision to the tenths place, which the
original data doesn’t support.
1.8 The answer to appropriate precision for the subtraction (1.126-0.97268) is:
(a) 0.15 (b) 0.153 (c) 0.1533 (d) 0.15332
Tip: Round to the least decimal places in the original numbers (3 decimal places for 1.126).
1.9 The answer of the product (2.8723x1.6) to the appropriate number of significant figures is:
(a) 4.59568 (b) 4.595 (c) 4.59 (d) 4.6
Tip: Result must match the least significant figures in factors (1.6 has 2 SF, so round 4.59568 → 4.6).
1.10 The answer to the mathematical division (45.2 + 6.0) in appropriate number of significant figures is:
(a) 7.5 (b) 7.53 (c) 7.533 (d) 7.5333
1.11 The answer to the following mathematical operation 24.4 m x 100 m/5.0 m to the appropriate number of
significant figures is:
(a) 4880 m (b) 4900 m (c) 4.88×10³ m (d) 4.9×10² m
1.12 The ratio of the dimensions of force and energy is:
(a) T (b) T-1 (c) L (d) L-1
Tip: [F] = MLT⁻², [E] = ML²T⁻² → Ratio [F]/[E] = L⁻¹.
1.13 Identify which pair from the following does not have identical dimensions.
(a) Work and torque
(b) Angular momentum and Planck's constant
(c) Moment of inertia and moment of force (d) Impulse and momentum
Tip: Moment of force = torque, while moment of inertia lacks T⁻².
1.14 The following figures are of the same Vernier
calipers. Figure (1) shows the reading when
the jaws are closed Fig. (2) shows the reading
when a solid cylinder is placed between the jaws. The
length of the cylinder is:
(a) 3.26 cm (b) 3.30 cm (c) 3.34 cm (d) 4.20 cm
1.15 The least count of an instrument determines:
(a) precision of a measurement (b) accuracy of a measurement
(c) fractional uncertainty of a measurement
(d) percentage uncertainty of a measurement
Tip: Least count = smallest measurable unit.
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1.16 A measuring tape has been graduated with a minimum scale division of 0.2 cm. The allowed reading using
this tape may be:
(a) 80.5 cm (b) 80.6 cm (c) 80.65 cm (d) 80.7 cm
Tip: Measurements can only be multiples of the least count (0.2 cm). 80.6 cm is valid.

Difference between Short Question and Constructed Response Question

Feature Short Question Constructed‑Response Question

3 to 5 sentences or more depends
Length of answer 2–4 lines typically.
upon the nature of questions.
Test understanding, application and
Purpose Test memory
ability to explain.
“Define…”, “State…”, “Give “Explain…”, “Analyze…”, “Calculate
Usually start with
value of…”. and justify…”.
Explain how a vernier caliper
Example Define vernier scale.
measures length with an example.
Key Difference in One Sentence:
A short question checks whether you remember a single fact, while a constructed‑response question asks you to
show your thinking or calculation in a few.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1.1 What are base units and derived units? Give some examples of both these units.
Base unit Derived units
• These are fundamental units in S.I system. • These are derived from base units.
• These units represent base quantities. • Represent derived quantities.
• Base units are Independent of other units. • These are formed by combing base units.
Example: meter, kilogram, second. Examples: newton (Kg m s-2), joule (kg m2 s-2).
How many significant figures should be retained in the following?
1.2
(i) Multiplying or dividing several numbers (ii) Adding or subtracting numbers
Ans. (i) Multiplying or dividing
Result should have the same number of significant figures as the least precise term has.
Example:
3.65 m  2.1 m = 7.66 m2
= 7.7 m2 (round off to 2 sign figs as least precise term 2.1 has 2 sig figs)
(ii) Adding/Subtracting
Result should have same number of decimal places equal to the smallest number of decimal places
in any of the quantities.
Example:
12.5 cm + 3.25 cm = 15.75 cm
= 15.8 cm (Round off to 1 decimal place, as 12.5 has smallest number of decimal places)
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How is the Vernier scale related to the main scale of a Vernier Callipers?
1.3
What is meant by L.C. of the Vernier Callipers?
Ans. Relation between both scales:
Vernier scale is a small scale that slides along main scale. It improves the precision of vernier callipers.
Least count: The smallest measurement a Vernier callipers can reliably make is called least count.
smallest division on main scale
= number of division on vernier scale
For a typical vernier callipers:
0.1
L.C = 10 cm = 0.01 cm

1.4 Write the following numbers in scientific notation.

Ans. (a) 143.7
= 1.437  102
Rule: Move the decimal point to left after the first non-zero digit.
(b) 206.4  102
= 2.064  104
Write the following numbers using correct prefixes:
1.5
(a) 580 x 102g (b) 0.45x10-5s
Ans. (a) 580  102 g
= 58000 g (Use kilo = 103)
= 58  103 g
= 58 kg
(b) 0.45  10-5 s
= 4.5  10-1  10-5 s
= 4.5  10-6 s (Use  = 10-6)
= 4.5 s
Kinetic energy of a body of mass m moving with speed v is given by 1/2 mv2. What are the dimensions of
1.6
kinetic energy?
1
Ans. Formula: K.E = 2 mv2
Dimension of K.E:
[K.E] = [1/2] [m] [v2]
Dimensions of mass = [M]
Dimension of velocity = [LT-1]
½ is a number, has no dimensions; so:
[K.E] = [M][LT-1]2
= [ML2T-2]
How many significant figures are there in the following measurements?
1.7
(i) 37 km (ii) 0.002953 m (iii) 7.50034 cm (iv) 200.0 m
Ans. (i) 37 km
Significant figures =2 (all non-zero digits are significant)
(ii) 0.002953
Significant figures =4 (leading zeros are not sig)
(iii) 7.50034
Significant figures =6 (zeros are b/w two sig figs)
(iv) 200.0 m
Significant figures =4 (zero to right of decimal points are sig)
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1.8 Write the dimensions of: (i) Planck's constant (ii) angular velocity
Ans. (i) Planck’s constant
E
Formula: E= hf, h= f
[E] [ML2T-2]
Dimension: [h] = [f] = [T-1]
[h] = [ML2T-1]
(ii) Angular velocity

Formula:  = t
[] 1
Dimension: [] = [t] = [T]
[] = [T-1]   has no dimensions

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE QUESTIONS

1.1 Why do we find it useful to have two units for the amount of a substance, the kilogram and the mole
Ans. It is useful to have both units of mass because they serve different purposes in measurement.
Kilogram:
This is the SI unit of mass and is used to measure the quantity of matter in an object. It is commonly used at
the macroscopic level.
Example: Kilograms are used for everyday measurements, such as determining the mass of a car.
Mole:
This unit measures the number of particles (atoms, molecules, etc.) in a substance. It is used at the micro
level.
Example: One mole of any substance contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles, known as Avogadro’s number.
Three students measured the length of a rod with a scale on which minimum division is 1 mm and recorded
1.2
as: (i) 0.4235 m (ii) 0.42 m (iii) 0.424 m. Which record is correct and why?
Ans. Correct answer = 0.424
Reason:
The least count of the scale is 1 mm or 0.001 m, so the measurement must have three decimal places to match
the precision of the instrument.
1.3 Why is the kilogram (not the gram), the base unit of mass.
Ans. The kilogram was chosen as the base unit for the following reasons:
1. The kilogram is a more practical unit for measuring everyday quantities, as the gram is too small.
2. Many other SI units, such as the newton (kg m s-2), are derived using the kilogram.
3. The kilogram simplifies calculations. If the gram were the base unit, we have to use conversion factors of
1000.
Consider the equation; P=Q+R
1.4 If Q and R both have the dimensions of [MLT], what are the dimensions of P? What are the units of P in
SI? If the dimensions of Q were different from those of R, could we determine dimensions of P?
Ans. (a) Q & R have the same dimension
Since Q & R have same dimension of [MLT], P must also have same dimension of [MLT], according to
the principle of homogeneity.
Proof:
Since, P= Q+R; so, [P]=[Q]+[R]
[P]=[MLT]+[MLT]
[P]=2 [MLT] (2 has no dimension)
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Hence:
[P]= [MLT]
(b) Unit of P
[M] = kilogram (kg), [L] = meter (m) [T] = second (s)
Hence P has units: kg m s
(c) Q + R had different dimensions:
In this case, equation P = Q + R is not valid of we can’t find dimensions of P.
Reason:
Only quantities with same dimensions can be added/subtracted.
What is the least count of a clock if it has:
1.5 (a) Hour's hand, minute's hand and second's hand
(b) Hour's hand and minute's hand
Ans. (a) Hour’s hand, minute hand and second hand:
▪ In this case, the smallest measurable unit of time will be 1 second.
Therefore, the least count = 1 s.
(b) Hour’s hand and minute hand
▪ In this case, the smallest measurable unit of time will be 1 minute.
Therefore, the least count = 1 minute.
How can the diameter of a round pencil be measured using metre rule with the same accuracy as that of
1.6
Vernier Callipers? Describe.
Ans. Procedure:
1. Place five identical round pencils side‑by‑side on the table. Clamp them softly
between the parallel inner edges of two books to remove gaps.
2. Place the metre rule at right angles to the pencils, its scale touching the bundle.
Read the distance (w) between the book’s inner edges.
3. Repeat the measurement three times, and average the three values to reduce
random error.
Calculate the pencil diameter:
w
d= 5
0.5mm
Uncertainty in diameter = 5 = 0.10 mm.
Result: d = (average) ± 0.10 mm.
Hence the final result matches the accuracy of vernier callipers.

How would be the readings differ if the screw gauge is used instead of a Vernier Callipers to measure the
1.7
thickness of a glass plate?
Ans. Both instruments have different degrees of precision; therefore, the final answers will different.
Explanation: let’s compare both instruments:
Vernier calliper: Screw gauge:
It has least count of 0.1 mm. It has least count of 0.01 mm.
Difference in reading:
As both instruments measure the same physical quantity, the screw gauge will give more precise results
because screw gauge has higher level of precision.
Write the correct reading of the length of a solid cylinder as shown in the figure if there is an error of +0.02
1.8
cm in the Vernier Callipers.
Ans. Given Data:
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Least count (L.C) = 0.01 cm

Zero Error = 0.02 cm (positive)
Readings:
Main scale reading (MSR) = 2.6 cm
Vernier scale reading (VSR) = (9  0.01) cm = 0.09 cm
Calculation:
Observed length = M.S. R + V.S.R
= 2.6 + 0.09 = 2.69 cm
Now, for the corrected value, we subtract the zero error (since it's positive):
Corrected Length = Observed length – Zero error

= (2.69 – 0.02) cm
= 2.67 cm

Explanation:
The formula for kinetic energy is:
1
K.E = 2 mv2
Even if the truck is moving slowly (small v), it might have a very large mass m. Car is light but fast, its v is high,
but its mass m is very small as compared to truck. This large difference in mass overcome the velocity
difference.
For the truck to have more K.E, its mass must satisfy:
masstruck  velocitycar 2
masscar > velocitytruck

4.6 Why work done against friction is non-conservative in nature? Explain briefly.
Ans. Work done against friction is non-conservative because frictional force is a non-conservative force.
Explanation:
• Path Dependency: Work against friction depends on the path length. For example, dragging a box
over a longer path results in more energy loss.
• Closed-Loop Work: The total work done in a closed path is not zero.
• Energy Dissipation: Friction converts mechanical energy into heat. So mechanical energy is not
conserved.

4.7 Does wind contain kinetic energy? Explain.

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Ans. Yes, wind has kinetic energy.

Explanation:
Kinetic energy is energy due to motion. Wind consists of moving air molecules. The kinetic energy in wind
comes from the motion of air particles.
Kinetic energy of the wind is given by:
1
K.E = 2 mv2
Where m = mass of moving air
v = velocity of wind
This wind energy is used in wind turbines to generate electricity.

COMPREHENSIVE QUESTIONS
4.1 Define K.E. and derive an expression for the same. See Section 4.5

How work is done by a:

4.2
(i) constant force (ii) variable force? See Section 4.1

4.3 Define conservative field. Show that gravitational field is conservative in nature. See Section 4.3

4.4 What is meant by absolute P.E.? Derive an expression for absolute P.E. See Section 4.5

4.5 State and explain work-energy theorem in a resistive medium.

Statement:
The net work done by all the forces (including resistive forces like friction or air resistance) on a body is equal
to the change in its kinetic energy.
Wnet =  K.E
Explanation:
In a resistive medium (like air), the body experiences resistive forces that oppose its motion (such as friction
or air drag).
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving in a resistive medium with initial velocity ‘vi’. A net force (including
resistance), it reaches a final velocity ‘vf’ after covering a distance d. Using third equation of motion we get
2ad = vf2 - vi2
vf2 - vi2
d = 2a (1)
From second law of motion,
Fnet = ma
Also, Fnet = F - fr
Where, fr = resistive force acts opposite to motion
So, F - fr = ma (2)
Multiplying equation (1) and (2) we get
 vf - vi 
2 2
(F - fr) d = ma  2a 
 
1 2 2
(F - fr) d = 2 m (vf - vi )
1 2
1 2
F d - fr d = 2 mvf - 2 mvi
Where, F d = Work done by applied force and fr d = Work done against resistance.
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1 1
Wnet = 2 mvf2 - 2 mvi2
Or Wnet = K.E
Physical meaning
• The applied force tries to move the object forward.
• The resistive force (like friction) tries to slow it down.
• So, the net work is less than the work done by the applied force alone.
In other words:
Work done by applied force = Gain in K.E + Work done against resistance
Define escape velocity. Show that an expression for escape velocity can be expressed as 2gR ,
4.6 where Rand g denote radius of the Earth and acceleration due to gravity, respectively. Also find its
numerical value near the surface of the earth. See Section 4.6

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
A machine gun fires 6 bullets per minute with a velocity of 700 m/s. If each bullet has a mass of 40 g,
4.1
then find power developed by the gun.
Given Data:
Bullets fired = 6 bullets/minute
Mass of each bullet = m = 40 g = 0.04 kg
Velocity = v = 700 m s-1
To Calculate:
Power developed by the gun=P=?
Formula:
total K.E
Power = P = Time
Solution:
1
K.E per bullet = 2 mv2

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

❖ Distinguish between the structure of crystalline, glassy, amorphous and polymeric solids.
❖ Describe the deformation of solids in one dimension.
❖ Define and use the terms stress, strain and the Young's modulus.
❖ Describe an experiment to determine the Young's modulus of a metal wire.
❖ Describe and use the terms elastic deformation, plastic deformation and elastic limit.
❖ Justify and apply the fact that the area under the force-extension graph represents the work done.
❖ Determine the elastic potential energy of a material.
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❖ State and use Archimedes' principle and flotation.

❖ Justify how ships are engineered to float in the sea.
❖ Define and apply the terms: steady (streamline or laminar) flow, incompressible flow and non –viscous flow
as applied to the motion of an ideal fluid.
❖ State and use equation of continuity to solve problems.
❖ Explain that squeezing the end of a rubber pipe results in an increase in flow velocity.
❖ Justify that the equation of continuity is a form of the principle of conservation of mass.
❖ Justify that the pressure difference can arise from different rates of flow of a fluid [Bernoulli effect].
❖ Explain and apply Bernoulli's equation for horizontal and vertical fluid flow.
❖ Explain why real fluids are viscous fluids.
❖ Describe how viscous forces in a fluid cause a retarding force on an object moving through it.
❖ Describe super fluidity.
❖ Analyze the real-world applications of the Bernoulli effect.

Have you ever wondered why steel is so hard and strong, while lead feels soft and bends easily?
The answer lies deep within the material, at the level of atoms and molecules. The way these particles are
arranged and bonded gives each solid its unique properties like hardness, strength, and flexibility. These structural
differences are the reason why different materials serve different purposes in our daily lives.
Analyzing fluid motion might seem complex, but with a few assumptions and the help of two powerful laws
of physics: the conservation of mass (equation of continuity) and conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s theorem), we can
solve real-life problems related to fluid flow.
Solid state physics:
The branch of physics which deals with structure and properties of solids is called solid state physics.
Condensed matter physics:
Condensed matter physics is the branch of physics that studies the physical properties of condensed phases of
matter such as solids and liquids.
Difference:
Solid state physics is a sub branch of condensed matter physics. Solid state physics primarily focus on crystalline
and amorphous solids, while a condensed matter physics also include fluids and advanced materials such as
superconductors, liquid crystals etc.
5.5 ELASTIC DEFORMATION, PLASTIC DEFORMATION AND ELASTIC LIMIT
Stress-strain curve explains different mechanical properties of solids when they are deformed. Stress-strain
curve (also known as force-elongation diagram) of a typical ductile material is shown in Fig. 5.5.
Proportional Limit (P): (Region OA Fig. 5.5)
The proportional limit (P) is the greatest stress that a material
can endure without losing straight line proportionality between stress
and strain.
In the initial stage of deformation, Hooke’s Law is obeyed. Stress
is directly proportional to strain, so the graph between stress and strain
is a straight line (OA).
Hook’s Law:
Hook’s Law states that a strain (deformation) is directly
proportional to stress (force or load).
Stress  strain
F  x
F = k x
Elastic Deformation:
Fig. 5.5: Stress-strain curve of a typical
Deformation produced within the OA region is temporary as the
ductile material.
material can return to its original shape on removal of the applied stress.
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Such a deformation is known as elastic deformation, and this property is

called Elasticity. (further see: Section 5.2)

Yield point: (Region AB Fig. 5.5)

The point B on the stress-strain curve is called the yield point. From A to B, stress and strain are not
proportional but if the load is removed, the material will return to its original length. The stress at B is named as
elastic limit (E). After this point, the Hook’s Law is not valid anymore and the stretched material never comes to its
original length.
Plasticity: (Region BC Fig. 5.5)
If the stress increases beyond the elastic limit, there will be permanent deformation. The original shape does
not recover when the stress is removed. This kind of behavior is called plasticity and is represented by the curve BC.
Ultimate Tensile Stress (m):
The maximum stress that a material can bear and can be regarded as the nominal strength of the material is
known as Ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Point C on the stress strain curve represents the ultimate tensile stress of
the material.
Fracture stress (f):
After crossing point of ultimate tensile strength of the material, the material breaks (at point D). The value of stress
at this point where material breaks is called fracture stress (f).
Ductile vs Brittle Substances
Substances that undergo plastic deformation until they The substances which break just after the elastic limit is
break are known as ductile substances. For example, reached are known as brittle substances. For example,
Lead, copper wrought iron. Glass, Bismuth, Chromium etc.

5.6 STRAIN ENERGY IN DEFORMED MATERIALS

“Strain energy is the potential energy stored in the molecules of a deformed material and is equal to the
work done by the deforming forces”
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Derivation:
Consider a spring which is stretched by a force F through extension
x. As the extension is directly proportional to the stretching force within the
elastic limit, therefore the force increases uniformly from zero to F as shown
in Fig. 5.7. Thus, the average force that stretches the spring through x is
given as:
0+F 1
Fav = 2 = 2 F
Hence work done by the stretching force will be given as:
W = Fav  x
1
W = 2 F  x
Using Hook’s law (F = kx)
1
W = 2 (kx)  x
1
W = 2 kx2
W = Area of OPQ Fig. 5.6
The work done by the stretching force is stored in the spring as its
strained energy and is equal to the potential energy stored in its molecules.
1 1
Strained energy stored in the body = E = 2 F. x = 2 k x2
For Your Information
The amount of work done in stretching a
material is equal to the average force applied
multiplied by the distance moved. Therefore, the
area under a force-extension graph represents
the work done to stretch the material. The work
done to stretch the material is also equal to
elastic P.E. stored in the material.
Fig. 5.7

QUICK RECAP
• Crystalline solids have ordered atomic patterns (e.g., diamond), amorphous solids lack long-range order
(e.g., glass), and polymeric solids exhibit partial crystallinity (e.g., rubber).
• Deformation: Change in shape due to external force (e.g., stretching a rubber band).
• Stress (σ = F/A) causes strain (ε = ΔL/L₀), and Young's modulus (Y = σ/ε) measures a material's stiffness by
relating stress to strain.
• The dimensions of stress, pressure, elastic modulus and energy density are the same.
• Elasticity: Ability to return to original shape after force is removed.
• Materials deform elastically (reversible) under stress until reaching the elastic limit, beyond which plastic
(permanent) deformation occurs (e.g., bent metal).
• Ductile materials (like copper) stretch or bend before breaking, while brittle materials (like glass) break
suddenly without much bending or stretching.
1
• Strain (elastic) energy is the energy stored when work is done against elastic restoring forces ( 2 𝑘 Δ𝑥 2 ),
similar to G.P.E. where energy is stored by doing work against gravity.

TEST YOURSELF
1. Which type of solids has definite melting points:
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(a) Amorphous solids (b) Crystalline solids

(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None
2. Which one of the following polymeric solid:
(a) Nylon (b) Iron (c) Sodium Chloride (d) Zirconia
3. The S.I unit of stress is the same as that of:
(a) Momentum (b) Pressure (c) Force (d) strain
4. Dimension of strain is:
(a) [L] (b) [L2] (c) [L3] (d) Dimensionless
5. Zirconia is:
(a) zirconium halide (b) zirconium oxide
(c) zirconium monolayer (d) None
6. Young modulus is highest for:
(a) Diamond (b) Tungsten (c) Steel (d) Copper
7. The ratio of applied stress to volumetric strain is called:
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Shear modulus
(c) Bulk modulus (d) None
8. Young modulus of the wire can be determined from:
(a) Searl Apparatus (b) Michelson interferometer
(c) Newton apparatus (d) Morely Experiment
9. Shear modulus for water is:
(a) One (b) 112  1010 Nm-2 (c) Zero (d) 1.2 × 102 𝑁𝑚−2
10. Substance which undergo plastic deformation until they break are known as:
(a) Brittle substances (b) Ductile substances
(c) Soft magnets (d) None
11. The ability of a body to return to its original shape is:
(a) Strain (b) Stress (c) Elasticity (d) Plasticity
12. Substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached are called:
(a) Ductile substance (b) Hard substance
(c) Soft substance (d) Brittle substance
13. A wire is stretched by a force F which produces an extension l. The energy stored in the wire is:
1
(a) Fl (b) 2 Fl (c) 2fl (d) Fl2
14. Area under the force-displacement graph gives:
(a) Energy (b) Power (c) Force (d) None
15. Slope of force-displacement graph equals to:
(a) Energy (b) Power (c) Force (d) Spring constant
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b a b d b a C a c b c d b a d

Fluid Dynamics
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5.7 ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE AND FLOATATION

When an object is totally or partially immersed in a liquid, an upthrust force acts on it equal to the weight
of the liquid it displaces.
Derivation:
The force in terms of pressure is given as:
F = PA
If 𝑃 is the liquid pressures at depths ℎ and 𝜌 is the density, then
P = gh
Consider a solid cylinder of cross-sectional area 𝐴 and height ℎ immersed in a liquid as
shown in figure. Let ℎ1 and ℎ2 be the depths of the top and bottom faces of the
cylinder respectively from the surface of the liquid. Then,
P1 = gh1 and P2 = gh2
where,
h = h2 – h1
Let the force 𝐹1 be exerted at the cylinder top by the liquid due to pressure 𝑃1 and
the force 𝐹2 be exerted at the bottom of the cylinder due to 𝑃2 , then
F1 = P1A = gh1A
F2 = P2A = gh2A Fig. 5.8: Upthrust on a body
immersed in a liquid is
F1 and F2 are the forces acting on the opposite faces of the cylinder. Therefore, the net
equal to the weight of the
force F will be equal to the difference of these forces. This net force 𝐹 on the cylinder
liquid displaced.
is called the upthrust of the liquid. Hence,
F2 – F1 = gh2A − gh1A
F2 – F1 = gA (h2 − h1)
F2 – F1 = g(Ah)
F2 – F1 = gV
Here Ah is the volume V of the cylinder and is equal to the volume of For your information
the liquid displaced by the cylinder, therefore gV is the weight of Archimedes was born about 287 BC, in
the liquid displaced. This equation shows that an upthrust acts on a Syracuse on the Island of Sicily. He was
body immersed in a liquid and is equal to the weight of liquid killed by a Roman soldier after he refused
displaced, which is according to Archimede's principle. to leave his mathematical work.
Applications of Archimedes’ Principle:
Archimedes’ principle is applicable to both liquids and gases. We observe numerous
applications of this principle in our daily life. Some important applications of
Archimedes’ principle are listed below.
1. Hot-air balloon:
Hot-air balloons rise and float in mid-air because the density of the hot air inside
the balloon is less than that of the surrounding air. When the buoyant force
becomes greater than the weight of the balloon, it begins to rise. This effect is
controlled by adjusting the amount of hot air inside the balloon.
Fig. 5.9
2. Wooden block floating on water:
A wooden block floats on water because its weight is less than the weight of the water it displaces. According
to the principle of floatation, an object floats when the upthrust equals its weight, even if it is partially
immersed.
3. Ships and boats:
Ships and boats are designed based on the principle of floatation to carry passengers and goods safely over
water. They will float if their total weight does not exceed the upthrust provided by the displaced water;
otherwise, they will sink.
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Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

❖ Use the principle of superposition of waves to solve problems.
❖ Differentiate between constructive and destructive interference.
❖ Apply the principle of superposition to explain the working of noise canceling headphones
❖ Illustrate experiments that demonstrate stationary waves [using microwaves, stretched strings and air
columns (it will be assumed that end corrections are negligible; knowledge of the concept of end
corrections is not required)
❖ Explain the formation of a stationary wave using graphical representation.
❖ Explain the formation of harmonics in stationary waves.
❖ Describe an experiment that demonstrates diffraction [including the qualitative effect of the gap width
relative to the wavelength of the wave; for example diffraction of water waves in a ripple tank]
❖ Explain beats [as the pulsation caused by two waves of slightly different frequencies interfering with each
other].
❖ Illustrate examples of how beats are generated in musical instruments.
❖ Use intensity: power/area to solve problems. Use intensity 𝛼 (amplitude)2 for a progressive wave to solve
problems.
❖ Explain that when a source of sound waves moves relative to a stationary observer, the observed frequency
is different from the source frequency [describing the Doppler effect for a stationary source and a moving
observer is not required].
fsv
❖ Use the expression fo = for the observed frequency when a source of sound waves moves relative to
v  us
a stationary observer.
❖ Explain the applications of the Doppler effect [such as radar, sonar, astronomy, satellite, radar speed traps
and studying cardiac problems in humans].

Yes, we encounter various types of waves such as water waves in the ocean and circular ripples formed on a
still pool of water by rain drops. When a musician plucks a guitar string, sound waves are generated in air which reach
our ear and produces sensation of music. The vast energy of the Sun, millions of kilometers away, is transferred to the
Earth by light waves.
7.1 WAVES
A wave is a regular disturbance or variation that carries energy, which spreads out from the source.
Medium:
In a medium energy is transferred by repeated vibrations or disturbances.
• These disturbances make the particles of the medium move up and down or back and forth.
• But the particles themselves don't travel forward with the wave.
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Example:
Imagine throwing a stone into a pond. The stone creates ripples (waves) that spread outward. The water particles
move up and down in place as the waves pass, transferring energy without moving away from their original positions.
Without Medium:
Energy can also transfer without medium in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
Example: Energy is transferred from the Sun to the Earth
in the form of light waves (electromagnetic waves).
Waveform:
The displacement of a particle of a wave is its
distance in a specified direction from its rest / equilibrium Fig. 7.1: Representing a raveling disturbance (ripple)
position. If the displacement is plotted along the y-axis
and the time in the direction of energy travel along the x-
axis, we get a waveform as shown in Figure.
Parameter of the Waves:
The waves can be described by the following
parameters:
1. Amplitude (A)
The maximum displacement of the wave (or
particles of the medium) from its equilibrium position.
2. Frequency Fig. 7.2: Graphical description of a wave
The number of oscillations/vibrations or cycles per second.
3. Wavelength
The distance between two consecutive similar points on Interesting Information
the wave that are in phase.
Period (T):
The time taken by the wave to complete one oscillation or
cycle. it is the reciprocal of the frequency 1 /f.
Speed (v):
The speed at which the wave travels. If a wave crest moves
one wavelength λ in one period of oscillation T, the speed vis given
by v = λ/T.
Since, f = 1/T so we can say that: v = f
4. Phase
The relative position of a point on the wave at a given time.
Waves have various forms, each with unique characteristics. There are many wave types. Their study is
essential to understand various phenomena in physics, engineering, and everyday life. Different types of waves are
described as:
Mechanical Waves:
These waves require a physical medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to propagate.
Examples: Water waves (ocean, lake, or pond ripples), sound waves (audible vibrations in air, water, or solids), seismic
Waves (earthquakes), etc.
Electromagnetic Waves:
They do not require a medium to propagate and therefore, can travel through vacuum.
Examples: Radio waves (wireless communication), Microwaves (cooking and heating), Infrared waves (IR or heat
radiation), Visible light (sunlight, lamp light), Ultraviolet waves (UV radiation), X-rays (medical imaging), Gamma rays
(high-energy radiation), etc.
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Quantum Waves:
Quantum waves are associated with particles like electrons Do you know
These wave types are essential to
and photons.
understand various phenomena in physics,
Examples are matter waves/particle waves (electron waves in
engineering, and everyday life.
atoms) or de-Broglie waves, photon waves (light quanta), etc.
Surface Waves:
Surface waves propagate along surfaces or interfaces between two mediums. Examples are ocean surface
waves (wind-driven waves), seismic surface waves, etc.
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves:
There are two main types of waves which are named as
transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
Transverse Wave:
A transverse wave is one in which the vibrations of the
particles are at right angle to the direction in which the energy of
the wave is traveling.
Longitudinal Wave:
A longitudinal wave is one in which the direction of the
vibration of the particles is along or parallel to the direction in
which the energy of the wave is traveling.
The transverse wave and longitudinal wave are shown in above Fig. 7.3: Main types of waves
Figure.
Pictorial Comparison
LONGITUDINAL WAVES

TRANSVERSE WAVES

7.2 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Principle of Superposition:
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If a particle of the medium is simultaneously acted upon by two or more waves, then the resultant
displacement of the particle is the algebraic sum of their individual displacements. This is called principle of
superposition.
Explanation:
The displacements of the individual waves are added
together to form a new wave pattern. Assume two waves are
passing through a medium simultaneously. There may be two
cases:
Case 1: (Addition of Waves)
If two waves, which overlap each other, have same
phase, their resultant displacement will be y = y1 + y2 where y1
and y2 are amplitudes of wave 1 and wave 2 respectively and y
is amplitude of their superposition.
If y1 = y2 then y = 2y1 = 2y2
Case 2: (Subtraction of Waves) Fig. 7.4 (a): Superposition of two waves of the same
If two waves, which cross each other, have opposite frequency which are exactly in phase.
phase, their resultant displacement will be y = y1 – y2 where y1
and y2 are amplitudes of wave 1 and wave 2 respectively and y
is amplitude of their superposition. Particularly,
If y1 = y2 then y = 0
General Principle:
Thus, if a particle of a medium is simultaneously acted
upon by n waves such that its displacement due to each of the
individual n waves be y1,y2,y3,…. yn then the resultant
displacement of the particle, under the simultaneous action of
these n waves is the algebraic sum of all the displacements,
will be given as:
y = y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + …. …. …. …. + yn
This is called principle of superposition of waves.
Mathematically, this can also be represented as:
Y(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t), + y3(x,t) + …. …. …. + yn(x,t) Fig. 7.4 (b): Superposition of two waves of the same
Where Y1(x,t) = y2(x,t) + y3(x,t), + yn(x,t) are individua frequency which are exactly out of phase.
waves and y(x,t) is their resultant wave.
In the context of waves, 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) is called wave function and it describes the shape of the wave and its evolution
over time.
The principle of superposition applies to linear waves or small amplitudes. Principle of superposition of waves
leads to many interesting phenomena:
Interference:
Two waves having same frequency and traveling in the same direction superimpose to produce interference.
Beats:
Two waves of slightly different frequencies and traveling in the same direction give rise to beats.
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Stationary Waves:
Two waves of equal frequency traveling in opposite direction give
rise to stationary waves.
By applying the principle of superposition of waves, noise-canceling
headphones effectively eliminate unwanted noise, providing a more
immersive and peaceful listening experience.
1. The headphones contain one or more microphones that capture
ambient noise (like background chatter or engine rumble or any
environmental noise).
2. The microphone sends the sound signals to an amplifier and a
processing unit in the headphones.
3. The processing unit generates an "anti-noise" signal, which is the exact opposite of the ambient noise (in terms
of amplitude and phase).
4. The anti-noise signal is then played through the headphones, along with the desired audio (like music or voice).
5. When the anti-noise signal meets the ambient noise, the two waves cancel each other out resulting in a much
quieter listening experience.
Above example is an oversimplification of the situation, as noise-canceling headphones use complex
algorithms and multiple microphones to achieve optimal noise cancellation, the basic principle of superposition
remains a fundamental concept in understanding how they work.
QUICK RECAP
1. Mechanical Waves need a medium to travel (e.g., sound, water waves).
2. Electromagnetic Waves do not need a medium (e.g., light, radio waves).
3. Quantum Waves are associated with particles like electrons (e.g., de Broglie waves).
4. Surface Waves travel along the interface between two mediums (e.g., ocean waves).
5. Transverse Waves have particle vibrations ⟂ to the direction of wave travel.
6. Longitudinal Waves have particle vibrations ∥ to the direction of wave travel.
7. Principle of Superposition states that the net displacement is the algebraic sum of individual
displacements.
8. Constructive Interference occurs when waves combine in-phase, amplifying the result.
9. Destructive Interference happens when waves are out-of-phase, reducing or cancelling the wave.
10. Applications include beats, stationary waves, and noise-cancelling headphones.

7.3 INTERFERENCE AND ITS TYPES

Definition:
Superposition of two waves having the same frequency and traveling in the same direction results in
phenomenon called interference.
Coherent Sources:
The sources of wave which send out waves having constant phase difference, are called coherent sources.
Experimental Set Up:
An experimental set up to observe interference effect of sound waves is designed. Two loud speakers S1 and
S2 act as two sources of harmonic sound waves of a fixed frequency produced by an Audio Generator (AG). A
microphone attached to a sensitive Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) act as a detector of sound waves.
The CRO is a device to display the input signal into waveform on its screen.
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Fig. 7.5 (a): An experimental setup to

observe interference of sound waves. Fig. 7.5 (b): Interference of sound waves
Observation:
The microphone is placed at various points, turn by turn in front of loud speakers and observation are noted
on CRO.