Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Notes (Devshatwar Sir)

Some Basic Concept of Chemistry Class-IX : Chemistry
XI Science Chemistry Part –I
CHAPTER 01
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Chapter Weightage
Marks Marks with Option Chapter utility Score
Board 5 7
NEET 0-12
JEE-Main 4 2.96%
“Chemistry begins in the stars. The stars are the source of the chemical elements which are
the building blocks of Matter and the Core of our Subject ” - Peter Atkins
JAIKRANTI COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, LATUR (Special Coaching for NEET/IIT-JEE/MHT-CET/AIIMS) (www.jaikranticollege.com) Page 1
CHAPTER
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
1 OF CHEMISTRY
SUB- TOPICS
 1.1 INTRODUCTION
a) Importance of chemistry
b) Nature of Matter
c) Properties of Matter and their measurement
d) S.I Units
e) Prefixes used with units
f) Unit conversions
g) Uncertainty in measurement
 1.2 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
a) Laws of conservation of mass
b) Law of definite proportion
c) Law of multiple proportion
d) Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes
e) Avogardro’s law
 1.3 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
 1.4 ATOMIC & MOLECULAR MASS
 1.5 MOLE CONCEPT AND MOLAR MASSES
 1.6 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION, EMPIRICAL FORMULA & MOLECULAR
FORMULA
 1.7 STOICHIOMETRY & STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
Science :-
It is the study of universe in which the facts depends upon proof.
The term science comes from the Latin word science comes from the latin word
‘scientia’ meaning knowledge.
Chemistry :- It is the branch of science which deals with the study of structure, Properties,
composition & uses of matter.
Father of Chemistry - Lavoiser
During 20th century the knowledge about chemistry has increased so much that the
subject chemistry is divided into several branches as follows.
1) Physical chemistry:-
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with laws & theories.
The effect of temp, press, light, concentration etc on reaction come under the scope of
physical chemistry.
2) Organic chemistry:-
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with study of hydrocarbons containing
covalent bond.
3) In-Organic chemistry:-
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with study of metals & non-metals.
It is concerned with materials obtained by minerals, sea and soil.
4) Analytical chemistry:-
It deals with various methods analysis of chemical substances both qualitative and
quantitative.
It includes chemical and physical methods of analysis.
5) Biochemistry:-
The branch of science concerned with chemical and physio-chemical processes and
substances that occur within the living organisms.
With these there are number of specialised branches of chemistry like
6) Medicinal chemistry 7) Soil and agriculture chemistry
8) Geo- chemistry 9) Industrial chemistry
10) Structural chemistry 11) Polymer chemistry
12) Phyto- chemistry 13) Limno- chemistry
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Chemistry :-
Chemistry derived from the egyptial word keme(chem.) which means earth.
according to Linus pauling
Chemistry is the Science of substances their properties, their structures and
transformations.
It is also called as material science as it deals with the matter & everything in universe
is composed of matter.
Chemistry plays important role in our life providing basic needs i.e.
1) Food
2) Clothes
3) Shelter
Along these it also contributes for our Luxurious life.
1.1 Introduction
Importance and scope of chemistry
Chemistry has a wide scope in different fields.
1) Engineering
Engineering materials like iron,steel, stainless steel ,zinc, copper, tin galvanized steel
alloys like brass, amalgums, precious metals like silver, gold, platinum are extracted,purified,
synthesized & analysed using processes based on chemical technology.
2) Drugs:-
Chemistry has wide importance in drugs.
All drugs are prepared in chemical or pharmaseutical laboratories.
1) L-dopa- Parkinsons
2) Insulin- Diabetes
3) Azidothymidine- AIDS
4) Cisplastin & taxol- Cancer
5) Tamiflue - Swine flue
6) Remediseever- Covid-19
Researches in chemistry for coming years gives us longer healthier and happier life
span for the entire world population.
3) Food:-
Plants produces food by photosynthesis process in the presence of sunlight
Green colour chlorophyll acts as photosensitizer or catalysts.
Chemical reaction:-
Co2 +H2O sunlight Food grain/ Flower/ Fruit /medicine cotton.
This process takes place in nature and not in laboratory.
4) Energy :-
The combustion of fossile fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gases produces energy
which is used to drive all automobiles.
But burning of fuel produces environmental pollution & is responsible for global
warming.
A new source of energy from electrochemical cells like, LED, Storage cell, dry cell,
solar cells which generate electricity without any pollution.
5) Materials:-
Knowledge of chemistry used to generate materials like polymers, plastics, paints
adhesives, liquid crystal and surface coating material like Latex paints.
Chemistry also used to synthesize new materials that can acts as super conductors
using these we can save near about 20% electricity.
Microprocessors used in computer are silicon chips which were developed by
chemist.
6) Chemistry in the service of nation
Chemistry contributes to a large extend in the development and growth of nation.
With better understanding of chemical principles it has now become possible to
design and synthesize new material having specific magnetic, electric and optical properties.
This has lead to the production of superconducting ceramics, conducting polymers,
optical fibers etc.
Chemistry has helped in establishing industries which manufacture utility goods like
acids, alkalies, duyes, polymer metals etc. These industries contribute in a big way to the
economy of a nation and generate employment.
In recent years, chemistry has helped in dealing with some of the pressing aspects of
environmental degradation with a fair degree of success.
Safer alternatives to environmentally hazardous refrigerants like CFCS (Chlorofluoro
carbons) responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere have been successfully
synthesized.
However many big environmental problems continue to be matter of grave concern

to the chemists. one such problems is the management of the green house gases like methane,
carbon dioxide etc.
Understanding of biochemical processes use of enzymes for large scale production of
chemicals and synthesis of new exotic material are some of the intellectual challenges for the
future generation of chemists.
A developing country like India needs talented and creative chemists for accepting
such challenges.
To be a good chemists and to accept such challenges one needs to understand the
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY which begin with the concept of matter.
Classification of Universe
Universe is classified into two types matter and energy
1.2 Nature of matter
Matter :-
Matter is anything which occupies space and which has mass.
Ancient Indian and Greek philosophers believed that the wide variety of object around
us are made from combination of five basic elements.
Earth, fire, water, Air and sky (Five Tatvas)
Ancient Greek philosophers also believed that all matter was composed of tiny
building blocks which are hard and invisible.
The Greek philosopher Democritus named these building blocks as atoms meaning
indivisible.
Examples:- Everything around us like book, pen, pencil, water, air, all living beings etc.
Exception:- Light is not matter, all form of energy are not matter.
Substances is a form of matter having definite composition and set of characteristic
properties which distinguish one substance from other.
Ex. Sugar and common salt both having nearly identical appearance but they have different
state composition.
Classification of matter :
Matter is further classified into two categories.
1) Physical classification
2) Chemical classification
1) Physical Classification:- It is based on physical state .under ordinary conditions of

temperature and pressure. So on the basis of nature of forces matter can be classified into the
following three ways
1) Solid
2) Liquid
3) Gas
1) Solid : -
In these constituent atoms or molecules are tightly held in
perfectly order therefore solid posses definite shape and volume.
Definition :-
“The state of matter which has definite shape as well as
definite
volume is called as solid state.”
Ex. Wood, NaCl, Sugar,Gold, Iron etc.
2) Liquid :-
In these constituent atoms are molecules are loosely bonded
with each other therefore they can move around with in the
liquid.
They possess definite volume but no have definite shape.
Definition :-
“The state of matter which has definite volume but no
definite shape is called a liquid state.”
Ex. Water, ink,KMnO4 soln, Milk
3) Gases :-
Compared to liquid and solid in gases atoms are molecules
are very loosely bonded.
The molecules of gases are far apart from each other.
The intermolecular forces between the gas molecules are
negligible
Definition :-
“The state of matter which has neither shape nor volume is
called as Gaseous state.”
Ex. Air, Oxygen, CO2, SO2, etc.
Inter conversion of states of matter :

The three state of matter are interconvertible by changing the conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Solid ‡ˆ ˆfreezing
ˆ ˆ †ˆ Liquid ‡ˆ ˆCondensation
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ† ˆˆ Gas
melting Evapuration
Along these three states there are two more States of matter.
4. Plasma state
5. Bose- Einstein condensate
 This is also called as super cooled liquid
 Glass is example of super cooled liquid
2) Chemical Classification :
At macroscopic or bulk level, it is classified as
1) Pure Substance
2) Mixture
A) Pure Substance :-
Pure Substance have fixed composition
The constituents of pure substance can not be separated by physical method.
They always have the same properties regardless of their origin.
Ex. Silver, Gold, Copper, Water, CO2, Diamonds
Classification of Pure Substance :-

Pure Substance are further divided into Elements & Compounds
1) Elements
A substance that can not be decomposed into two or more substances by simple chemical
method is called as Element.
Every element has a fixed atomic no & fixed symbol.
Till- 118 elements are identified
92 elements are naturally occurring
26 elements are synthesized in lab
chemists represents elements by symbol of one or two letters.
Classification of Elements :-
All the elements may be classified as metals, non-metals & Metalloids
Metals Non-metals Metalloids/

Semi-metals
They are generally solids at The are generally brittle & non The elements which shows
ordinary temp. lustrous properties of both metals &
non-metals are called as
They have a high density They have low densities
Metalloids/ Semi metals.
Conduct heat & electricity They are non-conductor of
heat & electricity
They have a lustre (a shiny They do not have a lustre
appearance)
The reacts with mineral They do not evolve H2 from
acid to liberate H2 mineral acids
Can be hammered into They are not malleable &
sheets (are malleable) ductile.
Can be drawn into wire
(are ductile)
M.P. & B.P. of metals are They have comparatively low
very high. melting points & low boiling
points
Their molecules are usually Non-metals can be exists in
mono-atomic solid, liquid or gases.
Ex. Gold, Silver, iron, Ex. Solid -C, B,P, S,Se,I Ex. Silicon, Germanium
Copper, Liquid- only one non-metal Arsenic, Antimony &
Mercury is liquid metal at i.e.Bromine present in liquid Telerium
room temp. state at room temp.
Gas – H2,N2,O2,F,Cl,He, Ne,
Ar,Kr,Xe,Ra
2) Compounds :
It is a substance which has definite composition which can be decomposed into two or
more substances by a simple chemical process.
H2O, CO2, Glucose, Nacl, Mercuric oxide, distilled water
The properties of the compounds are different from the properties of constituent
elements.
2H2+O2 2H2O
Definitions :-
“Substance made by combining two or more elements in a fixed proportion are called
Compounds.”
In the above example H2 gas is combustible, O2 gas help in combustion & water
extinguishes fire.
Compounds are classified into two types
a) In-organic compound :-
Obtained from non-living source
Ex. Nacl ___ Rock Salt (Found in earth’s crust)
Na2CO3. 10H2O – Washing Soda
NaHCO3 __ Baking soda
NA2SO4.10H2O ___ Glauber’s salt
CaO _____ Quicklime
Ca(OH)2 ___ slaked lime
CaCO3 ____ morble
CaSO4.2H2O ___ Gypsum
CaSO4. ½ H2O ___ POP

CuSO4.5H2O ___Blue vitrol
MgSO4.7H2O ___ Epsum
H2SO4 _____Oil of Vitrol
b) Organic compound
Obtained from living source
Contains ‘c’ bonded mostly with H, O & N.
Ex. Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids
Mixtures :-
Mixture is a simple combination of two or more substances in which constituent substances

retain their separate identities.
“Substances made by combining two or more elements in any proportion.”
Mixture do not have fixed composition
The property of the mixture is the property of its components
The mixture can be separated by simple physical method like filtration, condensation,
distillation.
Ex. 1) Paint – Mixture of oil, Pigment & Additive
2) Concrete – Mixture of Sand, Cement & Water
LPG, Sea water, Gasoline, a rustly nail, a page of textbook, candle, Tap water
Classification of Mixtures :-
There are two types of mixtures.
Homogeneous Mixture :-
All the constituents are present in single phase.
Concentration of the constituent remain uniform throughout the mixture.
Ex. Air,
Salt & Water
ethyl alcohol & Water
Oil with petrol
Tea, Coffee
Heterogeneous Mixture :-
If two or more phases are present in a mixture then it is called Heterogeneous mixture.
The concentration of constituents is not uniform
throughout the mixture.
Ex. Phenol- Water System,
Silver-Chloride water system
Mixture of all solids
iron-filling - sand
Noodle soup, salad
Board Question
1) Define chemistry
2) Define Matter & Classify on the basis of chemical composition.
3) What is the difference between element and compound?
4) Distinguish between Mixture and Compound
5) Explain the states of matter
6) Which are mixtures and pure substance from the following.
i)Sea water ii) Gasolin iii) Skin
iv) A rusty nail v) A page of textbook vi) Diamond
7) Classify the following as element & compound.
i) Mercuric oxide ii) Helium gas iii) water
iv) Table salt v) iodine iv) Mercury
vii) Oxygen viii) Nitrogen
MHT-CET Questions
1) The branch of chemistry which deals with carbon compounds is called……
Chemistry
a) organic b) inorganic c) carbon d) bio
2) A/an……… is a simple combination of two or more substance in which the
constituent substances retain their separate identities.
a) compound b) mixture c) element d) all of these
3) Which one of the following is not a mixture?
a) paint b) Gasoline c) liquefied petroleum gas d) Distilled water
4) Which of the following is an example of a heterogeneous mixture
a) Bottled water b) Table salt c) Pieces of copper d) candle
NEET Question Bank
1) Which is an example of matter according to physical state at room temp. and

pressure
a)Solid b) liquid c) gas d) all of these
2) What are the types of the compound
a) organic compound b) Inorganic compound
c) Both a & b d) None of these
3) Which of the following example of a homogeneous mixture
a) water + alcohol b) water + sand
c) water + oil d) None of these
4) Which mixture is called as solution.
a) Heterogeneous mixture b) Homogeneous mixture
c) both a & b d) None of these
5) Which of the following is a compound
a) graphite b) producer gas
c) cement d) morble
6) Which of the following statements is/are true.

a) An element of a substance contains only one kind of atoms.
b) A compound can be decomposed into it’s components
c) All homogeneous mixtures are called as solution
d) All of these
7) A pure substance can only be
a) A compound b) An element
c) An element or compound d) A heterogeneous mixture
8) Which one of the following is not a mixture
a) Tap water b) Distilled water
c) salt in water d) Oil in water
JEE Question Bank

1) Which of the following statements are correct?
i) Both solids and liquids have definite volume
ii) Both liquids and gases do not have definite shape
iii) Both solids and gases take the shape of container
a) (i) and (iii) b) (ii) & (iii)
c) (i) and (ii) c) (i), (ii) and (iii)
2) Which of the following life saving druges is used in cancer therapy?
a) Cisplastin b) Taxol
c) Azidothymidine d) both a & b
3) AZT(azidothymidine) is used for helping ….. victims.
a) arthritis b) thalassemia
c) AIDS d) tuberculosis
4) Which of the following is not a mixture but a pure substance ?
a) CNG (compressed natural gas) b) LPG (Liquefied natural gas)
c) Distilled water d) kerosene
Properties of matter and their measurement

Properties of Matter
Different kinds of matter have a characteristic properties which can be classified into
two categories.
1) Physical properties :-
The properties of matter which can be measured or
observed without changing the chemical composition of the
substance.
Ex. Appearance, texture, colour, odour, melting point,
boiling point, density, solubility.
2) Chemical Properties :-
It is a property of substance that is observed when a
substance undergoes a chemical change.
Chemical change is a type of change that also changes
the identity of a substance due to breakage and formation of
new chemical bonds.
Ex. 1) coal burns in air to produce carbon dioxide.
2) magnesium wire burns in air in the presence of oxygen to
form magnesium oxide
Measurement of Properties
• In everyday life we comes across a number of measurements like Kilograms
(mass), litres ( for volume), meters( for length measurements) etc.
• In the addition to these measurements we need to measure a number of other
quantities as concentration, temperature, pressure and density amount of electrical
charges etc.
Definition :-
“All such quantities which we come across during the scientific studies are called
physical quantity.”
A physical quantity thus refers to the result of measurement operation.
Its involves the comparison of the quantity to be measured with the some fixed
standard.
Units :- “A unit may be defined as the arbitrarily decided and universally accepted standards
are called Units.”
There are several system in which units are expressed such as
1) CGS (Centimeter for length, gram for mass and second for time)
2) FPS (Foot, Pound, Second)
3) MKS (Meter, Kilogram, Second) etc.
SI units :-
Different types of units of measurements have
been in use in different parts of the world example :-
kilograms for mass, miles, furlongs., yards etc for
distance.
To have a common System of units throughout the
world French Academy of science in 1791 introduced a
new system of measurements called metric system in
which the different units of a physical quantity are related
to each other as a multiplies of power 10
Ex:- 1km= 103m, 1cm=10-2m etc.
This System of units found to be so convenient that scientist all over the world
adopted this system for scientific data.
The eleventh general conference of weight and measures in 1960 proposed revised
metric system called International System of units that is SI units.
The SI system has seven basic units.
Base Physical Symbol for Name of SI Unit Symbol for S.I. unit
Quantity Quantity
Length L meter m
Mass M kilogram kg
Time t second S
Electric current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of Substance N Mole mol
Luminous intensity Iv Candela Cd
Derived units :-
The units obtained by combined of basic units are called derived units.
Physical Definition Unit Symbol
Quantity
Area Length square Square meter m2
Volume Length cube Cubic meter m3
Density Mass/unit volume Kg per cubic meter Kg/ m3
Velocity Distance/unit time Meter per second ms-1
Acceleration Speed change/unit time Meter per second square ms-2
Force Mass x acceleration Newton N= kg ms-2
Pressure Force/unit area Pascal P = Nm-2 ,
Kg m-1s-2
Work, Energy Force x distance Joule J=Nm=kg m2s-2
Physical Properties :-
1) Mass & Weight :-
 Every matter has mass so mass is an inherent property of matter.
 Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it while
Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
 Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter of a body contains.
 The mass of body does not vary as its position change.
 While the weight of body is result of the mass and gravitational force.
 The weight of substance may vary from one place to another due to change in gravity.
 Hence the mass of body is more fundamental property than its weight.
 Mass is denoted by m
 The basic SI unit of mass is kilogram denoted by kg
 However fractional quantity gram is used for weighing small quantities of chemical in
laboratories.
Unit conversion:-
1kg= 1000gm= 103 gm
1 gm= 1000mg= 103 mg
1mg= 106mg
1mg= 10-3gm
1mg= 10-6mg
Other units
1 Ton = 1000 kg
1 quintal= 100 kg
1 a.m.u. = 1.67 x 10-24 gm
2) Length
In chemistry we come across ‘length’ while express in properties such as the atomic
radius, bond length, wavelength of electromagnetic radiation and so on.
These quantities are very small the therefore fractional units of the S.I .units of length
are used as for example nanometer (nm), picometer (pm)
S.I. unit of length is m(meter)
1nm = 10-9m=103 pm
1pm=10-12m
1A0 = 10-10 m or 10-8cm
Other units
1 mile = 1760 yards 1 meter =100cm
1 yard = 3 feet
1 feet = 12 inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1km = 1000m
3) Volume:-
- It is denoted by ‘V’
- The space occupied by a three dimensional object is called volume.
- It does not depend on shape
- Volume has the units of (length)3 so in SI system volume has units of m3.
- But since smaller volumes are used in laboratories hence the units of cm3 or dm3 are
used.
- For measurement of volume of liquids and gases a common unit liter is used which is
not S.I. unit.
Unit conversion
1 Lit = 1 dm3 = 1000 ml = 1000 cm3 = 10-3 m3 = 103 cm3.
1ml = 1cm3 = 10-6 m3.
1ml =1cc
1lit = 0.22 gal

- Different kinds of glassware are used to measure the volume of liquids and solutions.
ex. graduated cylinder, burette, pipette etc.
- A volumetric flask is used to prepare a known volume of solution.
4) Density
- It is denoted by ‘D’
- Mass per unit volume of substance is called as density.
- It is the characteristic property of a substance.
- It is determined in the laboratory by measuring bath mass and volume of a sample.
- The density is calculated by dividing mass by volume.
Units :-
mass
Density =
volume
m
D
v
S. I. unit of density =kg/m3 or kg m-3.
C.G.S. unit of density gm/ ml or gm ml-1 or gmcm-3.
Note:- Chemist often expresses density in gm cm-3 where mass is expressed in gm and
volume is expressed in cm3.
5) Tempreature:-
-It is denoted by ‘T’
- The hotness or coldness of body is called as
temperature.
- The apparatus used to measure the temp is
thermometer.
- There are three popular temp. scales.
1) Centigrade or Celsius scale
2) Fahrenheit Scale
3) Kelvin Scale
1) Celsius Scale/ centigrade Scale -
- It is most common Scale
- It is discovered by Swedish astronomer Ander Celsius.
- In this scale freezing point of water (0oc) and boiling point of water (100oc)at normal
atmospheric pressure are taken as reference points.
This scale is divided into 100 equal parts.

-Value of each part is 10c.
2) Fahrenheit Scale:-
- This scale was discovered by German instrument maker Garbriel Fahrenheit.
- In this Scale freezing point of water (320F) and the boiling point of water (212oF) are
taken as reference points
- This Scale is divided into 180 equal parts.
3) Kelvin Scale / Absolute Scale :-
- British physicist, chemist, mathematician and electrical engineer Lord Kelvin
proposed the Kelvin scale.
- IUPAC has recommended that S.I. unit of temp. is kelvin
- On this scale at -2730C volume of gas is zero.
OK= -2730c
00C= 273k.
The inter –reaction of three temp. scales.
90
1)O F  c  32
5
5
2) 0C  ( 0 F  32)
9
3)TK  t 0C  273.15
6) Pressure:-
The force per unit area is called as pressure.
IT is denoted by ‘p’.
Units 1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 torr
= 760mm of Hg
= 76cm of Hg
= 1.01325 x 105Pascal(pa)
= 1.01325 x 105 N/m2
=1.03 x 106 dynes/cm2.
1 bar =105Nm-2 = 105 pa
7) Energy:-
- Capacity of a body to do work is called as energy.
1 calorie = 4.184 joules = 4.2 Joules
1 liter – atmosphere (L-atm) = 101.3Joule
1 electron volt (ev) = 1.602 x 10-19 Joule

1erg = 10-7 Joule
1 Joule = 107 ergs.
Golden key points
Units are important
1) During Calculations confinement to one single system of unit is advisible.
NASA’s mars climate orbiter (First weather satellite for mars) was destroyed due to heat.
The mission failed as there was a confusion while estimating the distance between
earth and mass in miles and kilometers.
2) The unit named after a scientist is started with a small letter and not with capital letter e.g.
unit of force is written as newton and not as Newton.
Likewise unit of heat and work is written as joule and not as Joule
3) Symbols of the units do not have plural ending like ‘s’ for example we have 10 cm and not
10 cms.
4) Words and symbols should not be mixed ex. We should write either joules per mole or j
mol-1 and not joules mol-1.
Prefixes used with units:-
The S.I system recommends the multiples such as 103,106,109 etc. and fraction such as
10-3, 10-6, 10-9 etc. the powers are the multiplies of 3. There are indicated by special prefixes.
These along with some other fractions or multiplies in common use along with their
prefixes are given below in table.
Prefixes used in the SI system.
Multiple Prefix Symbol
10-24 Yocto y
10-21 Zepto z
10-18 Atto a
10-15 Femto f
10-12 Pico p
10-9 Nano n
10-6 Micro
10-3 Milli m
10-2 Centi c
10-1 Deci d
10 deca da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
12
10 tera T
1015 peta P
1018 exa E
1021 zeta Z
1024 yotta Y
Some more Pref ixes :-
1 mono = 1
semi =
2
3 Di or Bi = 2
sesqui = = 1.5
2
Tri = 3 Tetra = 4
Penta = 5 Hexa = 6
Hepta = 7 Octa = 8
Nona = 9 Deca = 10
Undeca= 11 Dodeca =12
Trideca = 13 Tetra deca = 14
Penta deca = 15 Hexa deca = 16
Hepta deca = 17 Octa deca = 18
Nona deca = 19 Eicoso / Icoso = 20
Golden Key Points :-
1) Prefixes are used with basic units
Ex. Kilometer means 1000m (because meter is the basic units)
Exception :- Though kilogram is the basic unit of mass, yet prefixes are used with
gram because in kilogram kilo is already a prefix .
2) A unit written with prefix and a power is a power for the complete unit ex.cm 3
means (Centimeter)3 and not centi(meter)3.
Board Question Bank
1) Explain physical and chemical properties.

2) Define unit
3) What are S.I. unit name the fundamental S.I. Unit.
4) Answer the following
i) Full form of CGS unit system
ii) Full form of FPS unit system
iii) S.I. unit of amount of substance
iv) S.I. Unit of mass
v) Symbol used for candela unit.
5) The mass of a body is more fundamental property than its weight. Explain.
6) Give two examples of the fractional units of length.
How are they related to the S.I. unit of length.
7) Define Density. How is the SI unit of density derived. State CGS unit of
density.
8) Which are the three scales of temp?
9) Write the expression showing the relationship between
i) Degree Fahrenheit and Degree Celsius
ii) Kelvin and degree Celsius.
10) Convert the following degree Celsius temp. to degree Fahrenheit.
1) 400C 2) 300C 3) 1190C.
11) Convert the following degree Fahrenheit temperature to degree Celsius
1) 500F 2) 100F 3) 400F.
12) Convert the following into basic unit
1) 28.7pm 2) 15.15 pm 3) 25365 mg
8
13) If the speed of light is 3.0 x 10 m/s. Calculate the distance covered by light
in 2.00ns.
14) Fill in the blanks in the following conversions
i) 1km =---------- mm=--------pm
ii) 1mg=----------kg=----------ng
iii) 1ml=---------L= ---------dm3.
15) Match the following prefixes with their multiplies.

Prefixes Multiplies
i) micro 106
ii) deca 109
iii) mega 10-6
iv) giga 10-15
v) femto 10.
16) Convert 2 litre atmosphere into ergs.
17) Convert 2 atm into cm of Hg
18) Convert 20 dm3 into ml
19) Convert 590F into 0C.
MHT-CET Question Bank
1) S.I. unit of the quantity electric current is

a) Volt b) Ampere c) Candela d) Newton
2) Which of the following temp will read the same value Celsius and Fahrenheit
scales?
a) - 400 b) +400 c) -800 d) -200.
3) A measured temperature on Fahrenheit scale is 200oF.what will this reading be
on Celsius scale?
a)400C b) 940C c) 93.30C d) 300C
4) The prefix 1018 is
a) giga b) kilo c)exa d) nano.
5) The value of 1 amu is equal to
a) 1.66X10-24gm b) 12.00gm c) 1.9924X10-24 d)1.0gm.
6) S.I. unit of temperature is
a) K b) O0C c)OF d) D.
7) ------- can not be carried out in lab
a) photosynthesis b) reduction c) oxidation d) Hydration
8) The compound which is added to table salt for maintaining proper health
a) Kcl b) KBr c) NAI d) MgBr2.
NEET Question Bank
1) Dimensions of pressure are the same as that of

a) Force per unit volume b) Energy per unit volume
c) Force d) Energy
2) S.I. uni t of velocity is
a) Kms-1 b) kmhr-1 c)ms-2 d) ms-1
3) Magnitude of ‘pico’is
a) 10-12 b) 10-15 c) 1012 d) 1015.
4) 1 atmosphere is equal to
a) 101.325kpa b) 1013.25 c) 105 Nm d) 107Nm.
5) In known elements ,the maximum number is of
a) Metals b) Non-metals c) Metalloids d) None of these.
JEE Question Bank
1) Which of the following is correct

a) 1L=1dm3 b) 1L =10dm3
c) 10L = 1dm3 d) 1L= 1m3.
2) Choose correct option based on following statements. Here T stands for true
statement and F for false statement.
i) Homogeneous mixture has uniform composition throughout.
ii)All components of a heterogeneous mixture are observable to naked eyes.
iii) all solution are homogeneous in nature
iv) Air is an example of heterogeneous mixture.
a) TTFF b) TFTF c) FFTT d) TFFF.
3) Read the following and choose the incorrect statements.
i) Both weights and mass are same quantities used for measurement of amount of
matter present in a substance.
ii) Mass and weight of a substance vary from one place to another due to change
in gravity.
iii) S.I. Unit of mass is kilogram and while S.I. unit of weight is gram.
a) i) and iii) b) ii) and iii) c) i) and ii) d) All of these.
4) Moon takes 27.3 days to complete one orbit around the earth now read the
following statements and choose the correct code. Here T is for true statement
and F is for false statement.
i) Moon takes 655.2 hours to complete one orbit around the earth.
ii) Moon takes 39312 seconds to complete one orbit around the earth.
iii) Moon takes 1638 minutes to complete in one orbit around the earth.
a) FTF b) TTT c) TFF d) TFT.
Uncertainty in measurements
Scientific notation/ Exponential rotation :-
A Chemist has to deal with number as large as 602,200,000,000,000,000,000 for the
molecules of 2 gm of hydrogen
Or as small as 0.000000000000000000000000166gm that is mass of H atom.
To avoid the writing of so many zeros in mathematical operations, scientific notation
ie. Exponential notations are used.
In scientific notations numbers are expressed in the form of N x 10n where ‘n’ is an
exponent with positive or negative values of N can have a value between 1 to 10.
Ex :- 1) The number 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 is expressed as 6.022 x 1023.
2) The mass of H atom 0.000000000000000000000000166 is expressed as
1.66 x 10-24gm.
3) The number 123.546 is written as 1.23456 x 102
4) The number 0.00015 is written as 1.5 x 10-4
 The number 123.546 becomes 1.23456 x 102 in scientific notation. Note that while
writing it we have moved the decimal to the left by two places and same is the
exponent (2) of 10 in the scientific notation.
Ex :- 1) 235.4678 = 2.354678 x 102 6) 100 = 102
2) 70,000 = 7.0000 x 104 7) 1000 = 103
3) 1569.00 = 1.569 x 103 8) 10000 =104
4) 1100 = 1.1 x 103 9) 1,00,000 =105
5) 10 = 101 10) 500 = 5 x 102
The number 0.00015 is written as 1.5 x 10-4. Here the decimal has to be moved four
places to the right and (- 4) is the exponent in the scientific notation.
1) 0.1 = 10-1 6) 0.5469 = 5.469 x 10-1
2) 0.01 = 10-2 7) 8.78 = 8.78
3) 0.001 = 10-3 8) 0.878 = 8.78 x 10-1
4) 0.08 = 8 x 10-2 9) 0.345 = 3.45 x 10-2
5) 0.22 = 2.2 x 10-1 10) 0.00461 = 4.61 x 10-3
Precision and Accuracy in Measurement
Aim of any measurement is to get the actual value called true value or accepted value
of a quantity.
Precision : Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity.
However,
Accuracy : It is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result.
Four students determined the volume of a glass container in three separate times.
(see table below)
The true value of the container is 24.20 ml. Give the explanation of the students
results in terms of precision & accuracy.
Student A Student B Student C Student D
24.3 ml 24.89 ml 24.3 ml 24.5 ml
24.4 ml 24.87 ml 24.98 ml 24.1 ml
24.1 ml 24.88 ml 25.4 ml 23.9 ml
Ans.
1) Student ‘A’ results are precise and accurate because the results are very close to
each other and also close to the true value.
2) Student ‘B’ result are most precise but not accurate because these results are very
close to each other but not near to the true value.
3) Student ‘C’ results are neither precise nor accurate because these results are not
close to each other (or) near to the true value.
4) Student ‘D’ results are accurate because average of these values are near to true
value but not precise because the values are not close to each other.
Significant Figures :-
Experimental measurements have some uncertainty associated with them. However
one would always like the results to be precise & accurate.
Precision means how closely the individual measurements agree with one another.
Accuracy on the other hand means as to how close the experimental measurements
and exact values are
These aspects further depend on the accuracy of measuring device and skill of the
operator
Uncertainty in measured in measured values lead to uncertainty in calculated result.
Uncertainty in a value is indicted by mentioning the number of significant figures in
that value.
Consider the column readings 10.2  0.1 ml recorded on a burette having the least
count of 0.1ml. Here it is said that the last digit ‘2’ in the reading is uncertain, it’s
uncertainty is  0.1ml on the other hand the figure ‘10’ is certain.
The significant figures in a measurement or result are number of digits known with
certainty plus one uncertain digit.
In order to determine the significant figures in a measured quantity the following rules
should be applied.
Rules for deciding significant figures :-
1) All non-zero digits are significant.
Ex. i) 127.34 contains five significant figures which are 1,2,7,3 & 4
ii) 0.165 has also three significant figures.
2) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant.
Ex. i) 120.007 contains six significant figures
ii) 2006 has four significant figures.
iii) 2.05 gm has three significant figures.
3) Zeroes to the left of the first non-zero digit in the number are not significant.
Ex. i) 0.025 has two significant figures
ii) 0.036 has two significant figures.
iii) 0.005 has one significant figures.
4) Zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant.
Ex. 500,0.050,0.5000 have three, two and four significant figures reply.
5) Terminal zeroes are not significant if there is no decimal point (This is because the
least count of an instrument contains decimal point)
Ex. 0.400gm has three significant figures.
The measurement here indicates that it is made on weighing machine having least
count of 0.001 gm.
Significant figures are also indicated in a scientific notation by means of decimal
point.
Ex. The measurement 400gm has one significant figure, The measurement 4.0 x
102gm has two significant figures, whereas the measurement 4.00x102 gm has three
significant figures.
The zeros after the decimal points in these cases indicates that the decimal points in
these cases indicates that the least count of the weighing machines are 1gm, 0.1gm and
0.01gm respectively.
6) In numbers written in scientific notation all digits are significant
Ex. 2.035 x 102 has four significant figures
3.25 x 10-5 has three significant figures
The scientific notation or exponential notation is an excellent way of expressing
significant figures in very large or very small measurements
Ex.1) Avogudro; number 6.022 x 1023mol-1
2) Planck’s constant 6.62 x 10-34JS
Note:- In general a quantity measured with an instrument of smaller least count will have
more significant figures and will be more accurate than when and measured with an
instrument of larger least count.
Calculations with significant figures
Carrying out calculations with these numbers the rule used is that the accuracy of the
final result is limited to the least accurate measurement.
Rounding Off
The Rules employed for rounding off a number to the required number of significant
digits are as follows
i) If the digit to be retained is less than five, the last digit is left unchanged.
Ex. 1.35083 here 3 is less than 5 so round off number is 1.3508
ii) If the digit following the last digit to be retained is more than five, The last digit retained is
increased by one.
Ex. 82.87 is to be round off to three significant digits since 7 is more than five therefore 8
would be increased by one to 9.
The result in terms of significant figures would be expressed as 82.9.
iii) If the digit following the last digit to be retained is equal to five, The last digit is left
unchanged if it is even and is increased by one if it is odd.
For ex. 4.45 is rounded off to 4.4 & 5.35 is rounded off to 5.4.
Laws of Chemical Combination

The element combine with each other & form compounds.
This Process is governed by five basic laws discovered before the knowledge of
molecular formulae.
i) Law of conservation of mass/Law of indestructibility of matter
Russian Scientist. lomonsove stated the law in 1765.
In 1783 French scientist Lavoiser also stated the same law independently & verified by
Landolt.
This law deals with relation between mass of reactants and mass of product during
chemical change.
Statement:- “The mass is neither created nor be destroyed during chemical combination of
matter.”
Explaination :- Lavoiser studied several chemical reactions & determined the masses of
reactants & products before and later chemical reaction & found that mass of the reactants
before reaction equal mass of product after the reaction.
Ex. 1) Mercuric oxide 
Heat
 Mercury + Oxygen
100gm 92.6gm 7.4gm
2)Burning of carbon
C(s) + O2(g) Co2(g)
12gm+32gm 44gm
Total mass of reactant = Total mass of product
3) H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Mass in (gm) 2 71 2(1+35.5)
2+71=73 73gm
If the reactant is completely converted in products ,then the sum of the mass of reactants is
equal to the sum of the mass of the products.
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products

If reactants are not completely consumed then the relationship will be.
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products + mass of unreacted reactants

Golden key points
This law is not applicable for nuclear reactions where Einstein’s equation (E= mc)2 is
applicable.
Solved examples:- Problem

1) What weight of BaCl2 would react with 24.4 gm of sodium sulphate to produce 46.6 gm of
barium sulphate and 23.4 gm of sodium chloride?
Solution:- Barium Chloride and sodium sulphate react to produce barium sulphate and
sodium chloride according to the equation.
BaCl2 + Na2SO4 BaSO4 + 2NaCl
Xgm 24.4gm 46.6gm 23.4gm
Let the weight of BaCl2 be Xgm. According to law of conservation of mass.
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of Products.
Total mass of reactants =( X+ 24.4) gm
Total mass of Products = (46.6+23.4) gm
Equating the two masses
X+ 24.4 = 46.6 +23.4
X+ 46.6 +23.4 - 24.4
X = 45.6 gm
Hence the weight of Bacl2 is 45.6 gm
Problem:-2)
10 gm of CaCO3 on heating gives 4.4gm of CO2 then determine weight of produced Cao in
quintal.
Solution:-
CaCO3 Cao +CO2
10gm xgm 4.4gm
According to law of conservation of mass
10= 4.4 +X
10- 4.4 =X
X=5.6gm
kg
Weight of cao(X) = 5.6 x
1000
= 5.6X10-3 kg
1
=5.6x 10-3 x Quintal
100
= 5.6 x10-5 Quintal.
3) 24 gm of carbon reacts with some oxygen to make 88 grams of carbon dioxide. Find out
how much oxygen must have been used.
Solution:-
Given data:-
Mass of carbon (Reactant) = 24 gm
Mass of carbon dioxide (Product) = 88gm
Mass of oxygen = ?
12 gm of carbon combine with 32 gm oxygen to form 44 gm of carbon dioxide as follows.
Carbon +oxygen Carbon dioxide
12gm 32gm 44gm
Hence (2 x 12 =24gm) of carbon will combine with (2 x 32 =64 gm) of oxygen to give
(2 x 44 =88gm) carbon dioxide.
 Mass of oxygen used = 64gm
4) 32 gm oxygen reacts with some carbon to make 56 grams of carbon monoxide. Find out
how much mass must have been used?
Solution:- Given data:-
Mass of Oxygen (Reactants) = 32 gm
Mass of carbon dioxide (Product) =56 gm
Mass of oxygen (Reactant) = ?
12 gm of carbon combine with 16gm oxygen to form 23 gm of carbon monoxide as follows.
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon monoxide
12gm 16gm 28gm
Hence (2 x 12 =24 gm) of Carbon will combine with (2x16=32gm) of oxygen to give
(2 x 28=56gm) Of carbon monoxide
Mass of carbon used=24 gm
Law of Definite Proportion/Definite Composition
• The law as proposed by French Chemist Joseph Proust in 1799.
• He performed experiment on two samples of Cupric carbonate.
• One of the sample was natural in origin and other was a synthetic one.
• He found that the composition of elements present in it was same for both the
samples.
Cupric Carbonate % of Copper % of carbon % of oxygen
Natural sample 51.35% 38.91% 9.74
Synthetic sample 51.35% 38.91% 9.74
• Therefore he proposed the law of definite proportion.

Statement : “Any Pure compound contain always same element in a definite proportion by
weight ir-respective of it’s source or method of preparation.”
Ex: It was verified by Star & Richards
1) Molecule of ammonia always has the formula NH3. That is one molecule of ammonia
always contains one atom of nitrogen and there atoms of hydrogen or 17.0gm of NH3 always
contain 14.0 gm of nitrogen and 3 gm of hydrogen.
2) Water can be obtained from different sources but the ratio of weight of H and O remains
same.
(H2) (O) 2H2O  2H2+O2
Sea water
2 : 16 tap water
Or 1 : 8 River water
Ganga jal
Rain water
Golden key Point:- Law of definite Proportion does not hold good for non stoichiometric
compounds(e.g. Steel)
Solved examples:-
1) 2.0 gm of metal burnt in oxygen gave 3.2 gm of its oxide.1.42 gm of the same metal
heated in steam gave 2.27 gm of its oxide which law is verified by these data?
Solution:-
Here metal oxide is obtained by two different methods reactions of metal with oxygen and
reaction of metal with water vapour (Steam)
The mass of oxygen in metal oxide =3.2 -2.0 =1.2 gm
1.2
% of oxygen=  100  37.5%
3.2
2.0
% of metal= 100  62.5%
3.2
In second reaction (Reaction with steam)
The mass of oxygen in metal oxide =2.27 -1.42 =0.85 gm
0.85
% of oxygen = 100  37.44  37.5%
2.27
1.42
% of metal  100  62.56  62.5%
2.27
Therefore irrespective of the source the given compound contains same elements in
the same proportion.
The law of definite proportion is verified by given data.
2) Weight of copper oxide obtained by treating 2.16 gm of metallic copper with nitric
acid and subsequent ignition was 2.70gm. In another experiment 1.15 gm of copper
oxide on reduction yielded 0.92gm of copper. Show that the result illustrate the law of
constant composition.
Solution :-
In I experiment In II experiment
Weight of Cu= 2.16 gm Weight of CuO=1.15gm
Weight of CuO=2.7 gm Weight of Cu=0.92gm
Weight of oxygen = 2.7 -2.16 weight of oxygen=1.15- 0.92
= 0.54gm = 0.23gm
Cu : O Cu : O
2.16 : 0.54 0.92 : 0.23
2.16 0.54 0.92 0.23
: :
0.54 0.54 0.23 0.23
4:1 4:1
Thus the ratio of the masses of copper and oxygen in the two experiment is the same.
Hence the given data illustrate the law of constant proportion.
3) In an experiment 2.4 gm of Feo on reduction with hydrogen gives 1.68 gm of Fe, In
another experiment 2.9 gm of Feo gives 2.03 gm Fe on reduction with hydrogen. Show
that the above data illustrate the law of constant proportions:
Solution:-
In I experiment In II experiment
Weight of Feo = 2.4 gm Weight of Feo = 2.9 gm
Weight of Fe = 1.68 gm Weight of Fe =2.3 gm

Weight of oxygen= 2.4-1.68 Weight of oxygen=2.9-2.03
= 0.72gm =0.87 gm
Fe : O Fe : O
1.68 : 0.72 2.03: 0.87
1.68 0.72 2.03 0.87
: :
0.72 0.72 0.87 0.87
2.33 : 1 2.33 : 1
Thus the ratio of the masses of iron and oxygen in the two experiment is the same.
Hence the given data illustrate the law of constant proportion.
Law of Multiple Proportion :

• This law was proposed by British scientist John Dalton in 1803.
• The law is verified by Berzilius.
Statement : “If two elements combine to form two or more compounds then the different
masses of one of the elements which combine with a fixed mass of other element bear a
simple ratio to one another.”
Ex. 1) Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds namely water (H2O) &
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 )
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
2gm + 16 gm 18 gm
Hydrogen + Oxygen Hydrogen Peroxide
2gm + 32 gm 34 gm
Two masses of oxygen i.e. 16gm & 32 gm which combines with a fixed mass
of hydrogen (2gm) are in the ratio of small whole numbers i.e.16:32 or 1:2.
2) 1 gm of carbon react with 1.33 gm of oxygen to form a carbon monoxide & 1 gm of
carbon react with 2.66 gm of oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon monoxide
1gm 1.33gm
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
1 gm 2.66gm
Two masses of oxygen i.e. 1.33 gm & 2.66 gm which combines with a fixed mass of carbon
(1gm) are in the ratio of small whole numbers. i.e. 1.33 : 2.66 or 1:2
3) Nitrogen and oxygen combine to form two compounds nitric oxide & nitrogen dioxide.
Nitrogen + Oxygen Nitric oxide

14gm 16gm 30gm
Nitrogen Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide
14gm 32gm 46 gm
Here you find that two masses of oxygen i.e. 16 gm and 32 gm when combine with a
fixed mass of nitrogen (14gm) are in the ratio of small whole numbers i.e. 16:32 or 1:2
4) Sulphur combines with oxygen to form two oxides SO2 and SO3 the weights of oxygen
which combine with a fixed weight of sulphur i.e. 32 parts by weight of sulphur in two oxides
are in the ratio of 32 : 48 or 2 : 3 which is a simple ratio.
S + O2 SO2
32 32
S + O3 SO3
32 48
Hence the law of multiple proportions is illustrated.
Solved Examples
1) Hydrogen peroxide and water contain 5.93% & 11.2% of hydrogen respectively.
Show that the data illustrate the law of multiple proportions.
Solution:-
Compound H2O2 Compound H2O
H:O H :O
5.93 : 94.07 11.2 : 88.8
5.93 94.07 11.2 88.8
: :
5.93 5.93 11.2 11.2
(1) : 15.86 (1) : 7.92
Thus the ratio of weights of oxygen which combine with the fixed weight (1.0gm) of
hydrogen H2O2 and H2O is 15.86 : 7.92 = 2:1
(Which is simple ratio) So the law of multiple proportion is illustrated.
2) Carbon combines with hydrogen in P,Q,R. The % of hydrogen in P,Q,R are 25,14.3,
7.7, respectively. Which law of chemical combination is illustrated.
Solution:-
P Q R
H:C H:C H:C
25: 75 14.3 : 85.7 7.7 : 92.3
75 85.7 92.3
1: 1: 1:
25 14.3 7 .7
(i) :3 (i) : 6 (i) : 12
Ratio of C in compounds P,Q,R is = 3:6:12 =1:2:4

Which is a simple ratio so the data illustrate the law of multiple proportion.
Golden key points

It is applicable when some compound is prepared from different isotopes of an element
example H2O, D2O.
Gay Lussac’s law of Combining Volumes

• French chemist Joseph Gay Lussac proposed the law in 1808.
Statement : “Under similar condition of temperature & Pressure, Gaseous reactants &
products in gaseous reaction maintain a simple whole number ratio by their volumes.”
Ex. 1) Formation of ammonia gas by Haber’s process.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
1 vol 3 vol 2 Vol
1 Lit 3 Lit 2 Lit
Thus the volume of Nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas which combine together and i.e.
1L and 3L and volume of ammonia gas produced i.e. 2L bear a simple ratio of 1 : 3 : 2
Ex. 2) Formation of steam (Water Vapour)
Under the same condition of temperature & Pressure 100 ml of hydrogen combines
with 50ml of oxygen to give 100ml of water vapour.
Hydrogen(g) + Oxygen(g) Water(g)
100ml 50ml 100 ml
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
Thus the volumes of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas which combine together i.e. 100ml
and 50 ml producing two volumes of water vapour which amounts to 100 ml bear a simple
ratio of 2 : 1 : 2.
Ex. 3) Formation of hydrogen chloride gas
Under the similar condition of temperature & Pressure 1vol of hydrogen & 1 vol of
chlorine gas react together & they produce two volumes of HCL gas.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCL(g)
1 vol 1 vol 2 Vol
The ratio of volumes is 1 : 1 : 2.
4) 2 Co(g) + O2(g) 2 CO2(g)
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol 2:1:2
5) 2SO4 (g) + O2 (g) 2 So3 (g)
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
2:1:2
Golden key points

1)This law is used only in gaseous reaction. It relate volume to mole or molecules But not
relate with mass.
2) Gay Lussac’s discovery of integer ratio in volume relationship is actually the law of
definite proportion by gaseous volume.
3) This law is used for only gaseous reaction.
Solved examples
1) If 10 volumes of the hydrogen gas react with five volumes of dioxygen gas, how many
volumes of water vapour would be produced?
Solution:- According to Gay lussac’s law
2H2(g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (g)
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
10 vol 5 vol 10vol
 Volume of water vapour = 10 vol
2) For gaseous reaction H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
if 40 ml of hydrogen completely reacts with chlorine then find out the required volume
of chlorine and volume of produced HCL (g)?
Solution:- According to Gay Lussac’s law
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
1 1 2
1 ml of H2 (g)will react with 1 ml of chlorine and 2 ml of HCl(g) will produce.  40
ml of H2(g) will react with 40 ml of Cl2(g) and 80 ml of HCl(g) will produce
required volume of chlorine = 40 ml
produce the volume of HCl(g) = 80 ml
3)For the gaseous reaction H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g).
If initially 20 ml of H2(g) and 30 ml of Cl2(g) are present then find out the volume of
HCl(g) and unreacted part of Cl2(g)
According to Gay Lussac's law
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
1 ml of H2(g) will react with 1 ml of Cl2(g) and 2 ml of HCl(g) will produce 20 ml of
H2(g) will react with 20 ml of Cl2(g) and 40 ml of HCl(g) will produce.
Given volume of Cl2(g) is 30ml but its 20ml reacts with H2(g) so 10 ml of Cl2 remains
unreacted.
Avogadro's law
This law is the combination of Dalton's atomic theory and gay lussac's law of
combining volumes.
An Italian Physicist Amedo Avogadro proposed this law in 1811.
Statement:-
“Under similar conditions of temperature and pressure equal volumes of all gases
contains equal number of molecules.”
Mathematically we write V  n
Ex. 1) H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl(g)
Gay lussac’s law 1 vol 1vol 2 vol
Avogadro’s law 1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules
2) N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
Gay lussac’s law 1 vol 3 vol 2 vol
Avogadro’s law 1 molecule 3 molecule 2 molecules
Applications of Avogadro's law
1) This law helped to remove anomaly between Dalton's atomic theory and gives Gay
lussac’s law of volume by making a clear distinction between atoms and molecules.
2) It reveals that common elementary gases like hydrogen, nitrogen, Oxygen etc are
diatomic.
3) It is used in deriving molecular formula.
4) It is used to determine atomicity of a gas.
5) It provides a method to determine the molecular weight of gases elements.
6) It is used to derive the relationship between vapour density and molecular weight.
Molecular weight of a gas = 2 x vapour density
7) It is used to derive gram molecular volume.
G.M.V = 22.4dm3 at N.T.P
Golden key points

1) Avogadro number (No or NA)= 6.023 x 1023
2) Avogadro number of gas molecular occupies 22.4 lit or 22400ml or cm3 volume at STP.
3) The number of molecules in 1 cm3 of a gas at STP is equal to Loschmidt number that is
2.68 x 1019
4) reciprocal of avogadro's number is known as Avogram.
Board Type Question Bank

1) State and explain
a) Law of conservation of mass b) Law of definite proportion
c) Law of multiple proportion d) Gay lussac's law of combining volumes
e) Avogadro's law
2) Write the applications of Avogadro's law
3) show that NO and NO2 satisfy the law of multiple proportions.
4) Give two examples which support the Gay Lussac's law of gaseous volume.
5) The following data are obtained when dinitrogen and dioxygen react together to form
different compounds.
Mass of dinitrogen. Mass of dioxygen
1) 14 gm. 1)16gm
2) 14 g m. 2)32gm
3) 28gm. 3) 32gm
4) 28gm. 4) 80gm.
Which law of chemical combination is obeyed by the experimental data?
6) The weight percentages of carbon in carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide are
respectively. 27.27% and 15.79%. What is the composition of oxide of sulphur if the
weight percentage of oxygen is 50?
7) 4.2 g of NaHCO3 on reaction with 10 g of acetic acid liberated 2.2 gram of CO2 gas find
the mass of residue left?
8) Copper forms two oxides following law of variable proportions. 1 gram of each oxide in
hydrogen gas gave 0.799 gram and 0.88g of the metal respectively. Give the composition
of these oxides.
9) What is the volume ratio of produced gas is in the decomposition of phosphorus
pentachloride
10) If two elements can be combine to form more than one compound the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed the mass of the other element are in whole number
ratio
a) Is this statement true b) If yes, according to which law?
c) give one example related to this law.
11) 45.4 L of dinitrogen reacted with 22.7 of dioxygen and 45.4 L of nitrous oxide was
formed. The reaction is given below
2N2(g) +O2 (g) 2 N2O (g)
Which law is being obeyed in this experiment. Write the statement of the law.
MHT-CET Type Question Bank
1) The sum of the masses of reactants and products is equal in any physical or chemical
reaction. This is an accordance with
a) law of multiple proportion b) law of definite composition
c) law of conservation of mass d) law of reciprocal proportion
2) A sample of pure water whatever the source always contains …….by mass of
oxygen and 11.1 % by mass of hydrogen
a) 88.9% b)18 c) 80 d) 16
3) A sample of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) has the following percentage composition.
Ca= 40% , C=12% ,O= 48%
If the law of definite proportions is true then the weight of calcium in 4 gram of a
sample of calcium carbonate from another source will be
a) 0.016gm. b) 0.16gm. c)1.6gm. d) 16gm
4) Which of the following compounds cannot demonstrate the law of multiple
proportions?
a) NO, NO2 b) CO,CO2 c) H2O ,H2O2 d) Na2S,NaF
5) Two elements A and B combine to form two compounds in which ‘a’ gram of A
combines with b1 and b2 gram of B respectively. According to law of multiple
proportion
a) b1 = b2
b) b1 & b2 bear a simple whole number ratio
c) a and b1 bear a whole number ratio
d) no relation exist between b1 and b2.
6) At constant temperature and pressure 2 litre of hydrogen gas react with 1 litre of
Oxygen gas to produce 2 liters of water vapour. This is an accordance with
a) law of multiple proportion b) law of definite composition
c) law of conservation of mass d) law of gaseous volumes
7) In the reaction N2+3H2 → NH3, the ratio of by volume of N2,H2 and NH3 is 1:3:2.
This illustrates the law of
a) definite proportion b) reciprocal proportion
c) multiple proportion d) Gaseous volume.
8) In SO2 and SO3 the ratio of the masses of oxygen which combine with fixed mass of
Sulphur is 2 : 3. This is an example of the law of
a) constant proportion b) multiple proportion
c) reciprocal proportion d) Gay lussac
9) Among the following pairs of compounds the one that illustrates the law of multiple
proportions is
a) NH3 and NCl3 b) H2S and SO2
c) CuO and Cu2O. d) CS2 and FeSO4.
NEET Type Question Bank
1) 20 gram CaCO3 on heating gave 8.8 gram of CO2 & 11.2 gram of CaO. This is in
accordance with
a) The law of conservation of mass b) The law of constant composition
c) The law of reciprocal proportion d) None of these.
2) In one experiment for 4gm H2 combine with 32 gm of O2 to form 36 gram of H2O.
In another experiment when 50 gm of H2 combine with 400 gram of O2, than 450
gram of H2O is formed above two experiments follow.
a) The law of conservation of mass b) The law of constant composition
c) Both a and b d) Neither a nor b.
3) The law of multiple proportion was proposed by
a) Lavoiser b) Dalton c)Proust d) Gay Lussac
4) Which one of the following pairs of compounds illustrate the law of multiple
proportions.
a) H2O, Na2O. b) Mgo, Na2o c) Na2O, Bao. d) SnCl2, SnCl4.
5) Different proportions of oxygen in the various oxides of nitrogen prove the law of
a) equivalent proportion b) multiple proportion
c) constant proportion d) conservation of matter.
6) Oxygen combines with two isotopes of C12 and C13 to form two sample of carbon
dioxide. The data illustrates
a) law of conservation of mass b) law of multiple proportion
c) law of gaseous volume d) none of these.
7) The law of conservation of mass holds good for all of the following except
a) All chemical reactions. b) Nuclear reactions
c) Endothermic reactions d) Exothermic reactions.
8) If law of conservation of mass was to hold true then 20.8 gram of BaCl2 on reaction
with 9.8 gram of H2SO4 will produce 7.3 gram of HCl and BaSO4 equal to
a) 11.65gm. b) 23.3gm. c) 25.5gm d) 30.6gm.
9) A sample of carbon dioxide irrespective of its source contains 27.27% carbon and
72.73% oxygen. The data support
a) Law of constant composition b) Law of conservation of mass
c) Law of reciprocal proportion d) Law of multiple proportion.
10)
11) 14 gram of element X combined with 16 gram of oxygen on the basis of this
information which of the following is correct statement?
a) The element X could have an atomic mass of 7 and its oxide is XO.
b) The element X could have an atomic mass of 14 and its oxide formula X2O
c) The element X could have an atomic mass of 7 and its oxide is X2O
d) The element X could have an atomic mass of 14 and its oxide is XO2.
12) The mass of nitrogen per gram in hydrazine (N2H4) is exactly one and half of the
mass of nitrogen in the compound ammonia NH3. The fact illustrate the
a) law of conservation of mass b) law of multiple proportion
c) law of reciprocal proportion d) law of definite proportion
13) Chemical equation is balanced according to the law of
a) multiple proportion. b) reciprocal proportion
c) conservation of mass. d) definite proportion.
14) Percentage of copper and oxygen in samples of CuO obtained by different
methods were found to be same. This proves the law of
a) constant proportions. b) reciprocal proportions
c) multiple proportions. d) conservation of mass.
15) In the reaction Hydrogen(g) + Oxygen(g) gives water vapour, the ratio of volumes is
2:2:2. This illustrates the law of
a) conservation of mass b) law of combining volumes
c) law of combining weights d) all the above.
16) The law of multiple proportions is illustrated by the two compounds.

a) sodium chloride and sodium bromide b) ordinary water and heavy water
c) caustic soda and caustic potash d) Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide.
17) Among the following pairs of compounds the one that illustrates the law of multiple
proportions is
a) NH3 and NCl3. b) H2S and SO2
c) Cu and Cu2o. d) CS2 and FeSO4.
18) In H2O and H2O2 sample % of H is different is due to
a) law of conservation of mass b) law of definite proportion
c) law of multiple proportion d) law of definite volumes.
19) Percentage of C in all source of CO2 is same according to
a) law of multiple proportion b) law of constant volume
c) law of constant proportion d) law of definite proportion.
20) % composition of four hydrocarbons is as follows.
I) ii) iii) iv)
% of C 70 75 65 55
% of H 30 25 35 45
The data illustrates the law of
a) constant proportion b) conservation of mass
c) multiple proportions d) reciprocal proportions.
21) What is the weight of oxygen required for the complete combustion of 2.8 kg of
ethylene? (1989)
a)2.8kg. b) 6.4kg. c) 9.6kg. d) 96kg.
22) The molecular weight of O2 and SO2 are 32 and 64 respectively. At 150C and 150
mm Hg pressure 1 litre O2 contains N molecules. The number of molecules in two
litres of SO2 under the same conditions of temperature and pressure will be (1990)
a)N/2 b)N C) 2N d) 4N
23) What volume of Oxygen gas (O2)measured at 00C and 1 atm is needed to burn
completely 1L of propane gas C3H8 measured and under the same condition. (2008)
a) 5L b) 10 L c) 7L d) 6L
24) Equal masses of H2, O2 and CH4 have been taken in the container of volume v at
a temperature 270C in identical condition. The ratio of the volume of a gases H2:O2
: CH4 would be
a) 8:16:1. b) 16:8:1. c) 16:1:2. d). 8:1:2
25) If we consider that 1/6 in place of 1/12 mass of carbon atom is taken to be the
relative atomic mass unit. The mass of one mole of a substance will
a) be a function of the molecular mass of the substance
b) remain unchanged
c) increase two fold
d) decrease twice.
26) Two samples of lead oxide were separately reduced to metallic lead by heating in the
current of hydrogen. the weight of lead from one oxide was half the weight of lead
obtained from the other oxide. The data illustrates
a) law of reciprocal proportions b) law of constant proportions
c) law of multiple proportions d) law of equivalent proportions.
27) Which of the following reactions is not correct according to the law of conservation
of mass
a) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
b) C3H8(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) +H2O(g)
c) P4(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10(s)
d) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2 (g) +2H2O(g)
28) Which of the following statements indicates that the law of multiple proportion is
being followed.
a) Sample of carbon dioxide taken from any source will always have carbon and
oxygen in the ratio 1:2.
b) Carbon forms two oxides namely CO2 and so where masses of oxygen which
combined with fixed mass of carbon are in the simple ratio 2:1.
c) When magnesium burns in oxygen the amount of magnesium taken for the reaction
is equal to the amount of magnesium in the magnesium oxide formed.
d) At constant temperature and pressure 200ml of hydrogen will combine with 100ml
of oxygen to produce 200 ml of water vapour.
29) Which of the following is the best example of law of conservation of mass?
a) 12 gram of carbon combines with 32 gram of oxygen to form 44 gram of CO2.
b) When 12gm of carbon is heated in a vaccume there is no change in mass.
c) A sample of air increases in volume when heated at constant pressure but it’s mass
remain unaltered.
d) the weight of a piece of platinum is the same before and after heating in air.
30) Which one of the following pairs illustrates the law of multiple proportions?
a) SO2 and SO3 b) FeCl2 and FeCl3
c) both these d) none of these.
JEE Type Question Bank
1) Which of the following statements is correct about the reaction given below?
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2 O3(g)
a) Total mass of iron and oxygen in reactants =total mass of Fe2O3 in products. Total
mass of reactants = Total mass of product. Therefore law of multiple proportion is
followed
b) Total mass of reactants = total mass of product therefore law is multiple proportion
is followed.
c) Amount of Fe2O3 can be increased by reducing the amount of any one of the
reactants (iron or oxygen)
d) Amount of Fe2O3 produced will decrease if the amount of any one of the reactants
(iron or oxygen) is taken in excess.
2) In compound A 1.00 gram of nitrogen unites with 0.57 gram of oxygen. In
compound B 2.00 gram of nitrogen combines with 2.24 g of oxygen. In compound C
3.00 g of nitrogen combines with 5.11 g of oxygen these results obey the following
law.
a) law of constant proportion b) law of multiple proportion
c) law of reciprocal proportion d) Dalton's law of partial pressure
3) Give the correct order of initials T or F for following statements. Use T if statement
true and F if it is false.
a) Gay Lussac law of gaseous volumes is actually the law of definite proportion by
volume.
b) Law of conservation of mass is true for physical change but not for chemical
change.
c) The percentage of oxygen in H2O2 is different from that in H2O. Hence it violates
law of definite proportions.
d) Fixed mass of A reacts with two different masses of B(say x and y) then the ratio of
x /y can be any positive integer.
e) At STP 5ml of N2 and H2 have different number of molecules
1)TTFTF. 2) FTTFT 3)TFFTF 4) TFTTT
4) Match the columns
Column I Column II
(Laws of chemical combination) (Scientist)
A) Law of definite Proportions p) Antoine Lavoisier
B) Law of multiple proportions q)Gay Lussac
C) Law of conservation Of mass r) Dalton
D) Law of gaseous volumes s) Joseph Proust
a) A-(s), B-(r) , C-(P), D-(q) b) A-(p), B-(r) , C-(s), D-(q)
c) A-(r), B-(p) , C-(s), D-(q) d) A-(q), B-(s) , C-(r), D-(p)
1.5 Dalton’s Atomic Theory :

Democritus
 Atomio-indivisible (Atom is tiny, small indivisible particle of
malt)
 All old ideas about in atom put on scientific scale by John Dalton
(1803-1808) in Dalton’s atomic theory.
 He give the first simplest atomic theory regarding the structure of
atom & explain the laws of chemical combination
 In 1808, Dalton published ‘A new system of chemical philosophy in which he
proposed following assumptions.
Assumptions :
1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called as atoms which take
part in chemical reaction.
2) All atoms of the same element have same size, shape, mass & all other properties.
3) Atoms of different element have different property
4) Compounds are formed when atoms of different element combines in a simple whole
number ratio (1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 3:1)
5) In chemical reaction involves only separation, combination & rearrangement of
atoms.
Atom neither be created nor be destroyed.
Drawbacks :
1) Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical combination. However it could
not explain the laws of gaseous volume.
2) Dalton’s theory could not provide reason for combining atoms which was answered
later by other scientists.
Modern Atomic Hypothesis
• The atoms are no longer considered as
indivisible.
• Atoms of the same element may have different
atomic weights i.e. isotopes of
16 17
oxygen. 8O , 8O
• Atoms of different elements may have same atomic weight.

40 40 40
18Ar , 19K ,20Ca
• Atom is no longer indestructible in many nuclear reactions, a certain mass of

the nucleus is converted into energy in the form of α , β, γ -rays.
• Atoms may not always combine in simple whole no. ratio
i.e. Sucrose (C12H22O11)
the elements carbon, hydrogen & oxygen are present in the ratio of 12:22:11 & the
ratio is not simple whole number ratio.
• Atoms of one element can be transmuted into atoms of other element (Artificial
transmutation)
• Molecule is the smallest particle of matter which is capable of independent existence.
• Mass & energy are inter convertible.
Board Questions
1) Explain Dalton’s atomic theory
2) Give reason : Dalton’s atomic theory explains the law of conservation of mass
3) Give reason : Dalton’s theory explain the law of multiple proportions.
MHT-CET Questions
1) …… proposed some symbols for some common atoms and molecules.
a) Democritus b) Newtons
c) Thomson d) Dalton
2) Which law directly explain the law of conservation of mass :
a) Dalton’s law b) Avogadro’s law
c) Berzilius law d) Hund’s rule
JEE Questions
MCQ more than one option correct.
1) One of the statements of the Dalton’s atomic theory is given below :
“Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.”
Which of the following laws in not related to this statement?
a) Law of convervation of mass b) Law of definite proportions
c) Law of multiple proportions d) Avogadro’s Law
1.7 Atomic and Molecular mass & Equivalent weight

A Medo Avogdro give the existence of the two paticles
1) Atom
2) Molecules
Atoms :
The smallest particle of an element which take part in
chemical reaction.
It may or may not have free existence.
Molecule :
The smallest particle of substance called as molecule.
It has free existence.
Ex. H2, O2, N2, Cl2
1) Atomic Mass :-
• The smallest indivisible particle of an element is called an atom.
• Atom has a spherical shape of radius in the order of 10-15m.
• Every atom of an element has definite mass of the order 10-26 kg.
• The smallest atom of element is that of hydrogen having mass 1.667 x 10-27 kg.
• Hence it is not possible to weight a single atom.
• In 1961, the international union of chemists selected a new unit for expressing
the atomic masses.
• They accepted the stable isotope of carbon (c12) with mass number of 12 as the
standard. Which has amass exactly 12.00000.
Definition :-
It is the ratio of mass one atom of an element to the 1/2 mass of c12 isotope having
mass 12.
• It has no unit.
• Atomic mass previously termed as atomic weight but this term was not used for
longer time as the weight means gravitational force.
 Atomic masses expressed in grams is called (gram atomic mass)
 The atomic masses are expressed in amu (atomic mass unit)
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) :

The quantity 1/12 th mass of an atom of carbon c12 is known as the atomic mass unit
& abbreviated as a.m.u.
Later on the exact value of atomic mass unit in grams was experimentally established.
1
1amu =  mass of one c-12
12
1
= 1.9924  10-23 gm
12
= 1.66  10-24 gm or
1.66  10-27 kg
Mass of one atom of electron
Atomic mass of an element =
1 amu
Mass of an atom of hydrogen = 1.6736 x 10-24gm
Thus in terms of amu,
1.6736x1024 gm
the mass of hydrogen atom 
1.66056x1024 gm
= 1.0078 amu
= 1.0080 amu
Similarly the mass of oxygen -16(O16) atom would be 15.995 amu.
Recently the unit of atomic mass is replaced by u meaning unified mass called Dalton
(Da).
Using mass spectrograph atomic masses of different element using c-12 are
Hydrogen = 1.008u
Oxygen = 16.00 u
Chlorine = 35.453u
Carbon = 12.011 u
Iron = 35.874
Problem No. 1) Mass of an atom of oxygen in the gram is 26.56896 x 10-24gm. What is the
atomic mass of oxygen in u?
Soln : Mass of an atom of oxygen in gram is 26.56896 x 10-24gm and 1.66056 x 10-24 gm = 1u
 26.56896 x 10-24gm = ?
26.56896x1024 gm

1.66056x1024 gm / u
= 16.0u
2) The mass of an atom of hydrogen is 1.008 k. What is the mass of 18 atom of hydrogen.
Average Atomic Mass :-

• Careful investigation of mass spectrograph shows that natural hydrogen contains
three isotopes in definite proportion so that observed atomic mass is 1.008u.

• Carbon also contains three isotopes c12 ,c13 ,c14 so that the observed isotopic mass
is 12.011u.
• Most of the naturally occurring elements exists as mixture of more than one
isotope.
• With very few exceptions elements have constant mixture of isotopes. isotopes
have different masses.

• The atomic mass of such an element is the weighted average atomic masses of it’s
isotope.
• Therefore the term average atomic mass term is introduced.
% abundance x Atomic mass

Average Atomic mass =
100
Problem No.1)
Carbon has the following three isotopes with relative abundances and atomic masses as
shown against each of them.
Isotopes Atomic mass Relative Abundance%
C12 12.00000 98.982
C13 13.00335 1.108
C14 14.00317 2 x 10-10
Soln : From the above data, the average atomic mass of carbon.
Average Atomic mass = [mass of 6C12 x % abundance]
+ [mass of 6C13 x % abundance]

+ [mass of 6C14 x % abundance] /100
= (12 x 98.892) + (13.00335 x 1.108)+(14.00317 x 2 x 10-10) / 100
Average Atomic mass = 12.011u
Problem No. 2)
By using Aston’s mass spectrometer it was proved that neon exists in nature in the form of
mixture of three isotopes these are
Isotopes Atomic mass Relative Abundance%
20
10Ne 19.9914 90.92
21
10Ne 20.994 0.26
22
10Ne 21.9924 8.86
Soln : From the above data, the average atomic mass of Neon
Average Atomic mass = [mass of 10Ne20 x % abundance]
+ [mass of 10Ne21 x % abundance]
+ [mass of 10Ne22 x % abundance] / 100

= (19.9914 x 90.92) + (20.9924 x 0.26)+(20.9924 x 8.86) / 100
Problem No. 3)
The natural isotopic abundance of 5B10 is 19.60% and 5B11 is 80.40%. The exact
isotopic masses are 10.13 and 11.009 resply. Calculate the average atomic mass of
boron.
Soln : From the above data, the average atomic mass of Neon
Average Atomic mass = [mass of 5B10 x % abundance]
+ [mass of 5B11 x % abundance] / 100
= (10.13 x 19.60) + (11.009 x 80.40) / 100

Problem No. 4)
Lithium exists in nature in the form of two isotopes Li-6 & Li-7 with atomic masses
6.015u & 7.0160u & the percentage 8.24% & 91.76% resply. Calculate the average
atomic mass.
Problem No. 5)
Chlorine has two isotopes with masses 34.969 &36.966 with % of 75.53 & 24.47 resply.
Calculate average atomic mass of chlorine.
Golden Key point

1) In the periodic table of elements the atomic masses mentioned for different element are
actually their average atomic masses.
2) For practical purpose, the average atomic mass is rounded off to the nearest whole number
when it differs from it by a very small fraction.
Element Isotopes Average Atomic Rounded off

Mass atomic mass
Carbon C12, C13, C14 12.011 u 12.0 u
14 15
Nitrogen 7N , 7N 13.904 u 14.0 u
16
Oxygen 8O , 8O17,8O18 15.999 u 16.0 u
35 37
Chlorine 17Cl , 17Cl 35.453 u 35.5 u
79 81
Bromine 35Br , 35 Br 79.904 u 79.9 u
i) Method for determination of Atomic Weight

Atomic weight is determined by Dulong and petit method.
Dulong Petit’s Law :-
Statement :- The product of atomic weight and specific heat of an element is 6.4
approximately.
This law is is applicable only for solids (except Be, B,C, Si)
Atomic weight x specific heat = 6.4 (approx)
Step – I Atomic weight (app) = 6.4 / specific heat
Atomic weight (app)
Step – II Valency 
Equivalent weight
Step – III Exact atomic weight = Equivalent weight x valency
ii) Law of isomorphism :-
Isomorphous substance form crystals which have same shape and size and grow in the
saturated solution of each other examples of isomorphous compounds :-
1) H2SO4 and K2CrO4
2) ZnSO4. 7H2O and FeSO4. 7H2O and MgSO4.7H2O
3) KClO4 and KMnO4
4) K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3.24H2O and K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
Conclusion :- Masses of two elements that combine with same mass of other elements in their
respective compounds are in the ratio of their atomic masses.
Mass of one element (A) that combines with a certain mass of other element
Mass of other element (B) that combines with same mass of other element
Atomic mass of A

Atomic mass of B
The valencies of the elements forming isomorphous compounds are the same.
Molecular weight
iv) Atomic weight = 
Atomicity
Problems
0.0310 C  cal
1) Specific heat of a metal is  and it’s equivalent weight is 103.6. Calculate
gm
the exact atomic weight of the metal
Soln :-
According to Dulong Petit’s law
64
Approx atomic weight  = 206.45
0.031
Apporx atomic weight
Valency of metal 
Equivalent weight
206.45
  1.99  2
103.6
Exact atomic weight of the element = Equivalent weight x valency
= 103.6 x 2
= 207.2
2) A chloride of an element contains 49.5% chlorine. The specific heat of the element is
0.0640C x cal /g. Calculate the equivalent mass, valency and atomic mass of the element.
Soln : Mass of chlorine in metal chloride = 49.5
Mass of metal = (100-49.5) = 50.5
weight of metal
Equivalent weight of metal  x 35.5
weight of chlorine
Now according to Dulong and Petit’s law
6.4 6.4
Approximate at wt of the metal    100
specific heat 0.064
Apporx atomic weight 100
Valency   = 2.7 = 3
Equivalent weight 36.21
Hence exact atomic weight = 36.21 x 3 = 108.63
Molecular Mass :-
Molecule :- A molecule is generally an assembly of two or more tightly bonded atoms.
Molecules are of two types on the basis of elemental atoms.
i) homoatomic molecule :- Molecules of an element containing one type of atom only.
ii) Hetroatomic molecule :- Molecules of compounds containing more than one type of atoms
Ex. NH3, H2O, CH4 etc.
Atomicity :- Number of atom present in molecule is called it’s atomicity.
Molecule Atomicity Called as
KCl 2 Diatomic molecules
H2SO4 7 Polyatomic molecule
O3 3 Triatomic molecule
H2 2 Diatomic molecule
NH3 4 Tetratomic molecule
PCl5 6 Polyatomic molecule
He, Ne, Ar 1 Mono atomic molecule
Molecular Mass :-
Definition :-
Molecular mass of substance is the sum of average atomic masses of the atoms of an
element which constitute the molecule.
OR
It is the ratio of mass of one molecule of the substance to the 1/12 th mass of an atom
of C12 isotope.
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of atoms present in the molecule.
It is obtained by multiplying average atomic mass of each element by the number of
atoms and adding them together.
Ex.
1) The molecular mass of carbon dioxide is (CO2)
=1( Average atomic mass)+2(Average atomic mass)
= 1(12.0u)+2(16.0u)
=12.0u + 32.0u
= 44.0u
2) H2O = 2x 1u + 16 u
= 18u
3) C6H5Cl = (6 x 12u)+(5 x 1u) + (35.5u)

= 112.5u
4) H2SO4 = (2 x 1u) + (32u) + (4 x 16u) = 98
Gram Molecular Mass :-
When numerical value of molecular mass of the substance is expressed in grams then
the value becomes gram molecular mass.
Gram Molecular Mass = mass of 1 gram molecule
= mass of 1 mole molecule
23
Mass of NA molecues = mass of 6.023 x 10 molecules
Ex. Gram molecular mass of H2SO4 = Mass of 1 gram molecule H2SO4
= Mass of 1 mole molecule of H2SO4
= Mass of NA molecule H2SO4
98
= NA
NA
= 98
The mass of one mole of substance is numberically equal to the molecular mass. Hence
molecular mass is also called molar mass.
Actual Mass :-
The mass of one atom or one molecule of a substance is called as actual mass.
Ex. 1) Actual mass of O2 = 32 amu
= 32 x 1.67 x 10-24gm
= 53.44 x 10-24gm
2) Actual mass of H2O = (2+16) amu
= 18 x 1.67 x 10-24gm
= 2.99 x 10-23gm
Methods for determination of molecular weights :-
1) Vapour density method :
Vapour density (V.D) – Vapour density of a gas is the ratio of densities of gas and hydrogen
at the same temperature & Press.
Density of gas
Vapour density (V.D) 
Density of H 2 gas
Mass of gas for certain V lit.vol
Vapour density 
Mass of H 2gas for V lit.vol
If N molecules are present in the given volume of a gas and hydrogen under similar condition
of temp. & Pressure.
Mass of N molecules of gas
V.D = 
Mass of N molecules of H 2gas
If N = 1
Mass of 1 molecules of gas
V.D 
Mass of 1 molecules of H 2 gas
Mass of 1 molecules of gas
V.D 
2
Molecular mass of gas = 2 x V.D.
ii) Diffusion method :-

It is based on Grahm’s law of diffusion
Graham’s law states that –
Under similar condition of different gases are inversely proportional to the savore roots of
their densities or molecular weights.
r1 d2 M2
 
r2 d1 M1
Here r1 & r2 are rates of diffusion for two species while M1 & M2 are their molecular
masses respectively.
3) Colligative properties method :-
W
πv  RT
M
W
M RT
πv
Here π = Osmotic pressure in atm
V = volume in litre
W = weight in gram
R = Universal gas constant
M= molar mass
Problem –
1) At NTP the density of gas is 0.00445 gm/ml then find out its V.D. and molecular mass.
Density of gas
Soln : V.D. 
Density of H 2
0.004450

0.000089
V.D. = 50
Molecular mass = 2 x V.D
= 2 x 50
= 100
2) Weight of 1 liter of gas is 2 gm then find out its V.D. and molecular mass.
mass 2
Soln : Density of gas   = 0.002 gm/ ml
volume 1000
Density of gas 0.002000
V.D   = 22.4
Density of H 2gas 0.000089
Molecular mass = 2 x V.D = 2 x 50 = 100
Golden Key point :-
1) Victor Mayer’s method is used to determine molecular weight of volatile compound.
Formula Mass :-
 Some substance such as sodium chloride do not contain discrete molecules as the
constituent units.
 In such compounds cationic (sodium) and anionic (Chloride) entities are arranged in a
three dimensional structure.
 In sodium chloride, crystal, one Na+ ion is surrounded by six ions, all at the same
distance from it and vice versa. Therefore NaCl is just the formula used to represent
sodium chloride through it is not a molecule.
 Similarly, a term ‘formula mass’ is used for such ionic compounds, instead of
molecular mass.
Definition :-
The formula mass of a substance is the sum of atomic masses of the atoms
present in the formula.
Ex. 1) Ex. 1) Formula mass of NaCl
= Average atomic mass + Average atomic mass of Cl
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u
= 58.5u
2) Formula mass of Cu(NO3) 2
= Average atomic mass Cu + Average atomic mass of nitrogen
+ Average atomic mass of three oxygen
= (63.5) + 2 (14 + 3 + 16)
= 129.5 u
Ex. Find the formula mass of CaSO4.
It atomic mass of Ca = 40.1u, S=32.1 u and O = 16.0 u.
Equivalent Weight :-
Defn : The weight of an element which combines or displaces 1.008 port of by wt of

hydrogen or 8 parts by weight of oxygen or 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine is called as
equivalent weight.
Equivalent weight of a substance depends on the reaction in which it take port.
Equivalent weight is a relative quantity so it is unitless.
When equivalent weight of a substance is expressed in grams it is called gram equivalent
weight. (GEW)
Calculation of equivalent weight :-
Atomic weight
i) Equivalent weight of element 
Valency factor
formula weight of ion
ii) Equivalent weight of ions 
Valency
iii) Equivalent weight of ionic compound = equivalent weight of cation
+ equivalent w.t. of anion
Ex. Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = equivalent weight of H++ equivalent w.t. of anion ( SO4 )
= 1+48
= 49
iv) Equivalent weight for acids

molecular weight
E 
Protocity or basicity of acid
M
For H3PO4 E
3
M
H3PO4 E 
2
M
H3PO4 E 
1
M
For H3SO4 E 
2
COOH
M
For COOH x 2H2O E 
2
v) equivalent weight for base :
Molecular weight
E 
Acidity or number of OH - isons
M
For Ca(OH)2 E 
2
M
Al (OH)3 E 
3
M
NaOH E 
1
Vi) Equivalent weight of acidic salt :
Molecular wt.of acidic salt
E=
Replacable ' H' atom
Ex. E of NaHCO3
M NaHCO3 84
E NaHCO3=  = 84
Number of replaable H atom 1
E of NaHCO3
M NaSO4 120
E NaHSO4    120
Number of replaable H atom(s) 1
vii) Equivalent weight of basic salt
Molecular wt.of besic salt
E=
No. of replacable ' OH' atom
Example
Basic salt Equivalent wt.
Pb(OH) NO3 286/1 = 286
Mg(OH)Cl 76.5/1 = 76.5
viii) Equivalent wt. of oxidizing & reducing agent :
Equivalent weight of an oxidizing or reduing agent is equal to it’s molecular wt. divided
by the number of electrons gained or lost per molecule.
Molecular wt.of oxidant

Equivalent weight of an oxidizing =
No. of e-s gained by one molecule
Molecular wt.of reductant
Equivalent weight of an reductant =
No. of e -s lost by one molecule
Ex.
1) Find the equivalent weight of AlCl3
Soln : equivalent weight of AlCl3 = EAl +ECl
= 27/3 + 35.5
= 9 +35.5
= 45
Molecular wt.of AlCl 3
EAlCl3 =
Total positive charge
= 133.5 /3
= 44.5
Methods of Determination of Equivalent weight :-
1) By hydrogen displacement :-
This method is used for metals like Ca, Zn,Sn, Mg which react with diulute acid and
produce hydrogen.
weight of metal
Equivalent weight of metal =  1.008
weight of H 2 gas (displaced )
2) Oxide formation method :-

Equivalent weight of metals like Copper, Magnesium, Mercury, Zinc etc. which form
their oxides easily can be determined by this method.
weight of metal taken(w 1 )
Equivalent weight of metal = 8
weight of oxygen (w 2 - w1 )
(w2 = wt of oxide metal, w1 = wt. of metal )
3) By metal Cholride formation :-

Equivalent weight of metals like Na, K, Ag, Au etc. which from their chlorides easily
can be determined by this method.
weight of metal taken
Equivalent weight of metal =  35.5
weight of Chlorine
4) By metal displacement :-
More active metals can displace less active metals from their salt solution.
This displacement is based on the law of equivalent
weight of Metal A equivalent wt. of metal A

weight of Metal B equivalent wt. of metal B
5) Silver salt method :-
This method is used for finding the equivalent wt. of carbonic (organic acids). A
known mass of the RCooAg is changed into Ag through combustion. The mass of Ag is
determined.
equivalent wt. of RCooAg weight of RCooAg
=
equivalent wt. of Ag weight of Ag
weight of RCooAg
Equivalent weight of metal =  10g
weight of Ag
6) By Electrolysis :
This method is based on Faraday’s second law of electrolysis
weight of A deposited equivalent wt. of metal A

weight of B deposited equivalent wt. of metal B
Problem L-
1) 5 gm of metal gives 6.35gm of it’s oxide. Calculate the equivalent weight of metal
Soln : Weight of metal = 5 gm
Weight of Oxide = 6.35 gm
Weight of Oxygen = 6.35 – 5gm
= 1.35 gm
weight of metal taken(w 1 ) 5
Equivalent wt. of metal = 8  x8 = 29.62
weight of oxygen (w 2 - w1 ) 1.35
So, equivalent weight of metal is 29.62

Golden Key points
1) Equivalent wt. of a species changes with reaction in which it gets involved.
2) Amount of substance which loses or gains 1 mole of electrons or 96500 coulombs,

electricity will always be it’s equivalent weight.
Board Questions
1) Define atomic mass of unit(amu)
2) How many grams does an atom of hydrogen weight
3) What is meant by unified mass unit
4) What is average atomic weight
5) Explain the need of the term average atomic mass
6) Define molecular mass
7) How is molecular mass of substance calculated?
8) Define formula mass
9) Complete he following table
Column A Column B
1) The mass of one hydrogen atom in _______
gram
2) The exact vale of 1 atomic mass _______
unit (1 amu) in gram
3) Isotopes of carbon _______
4) formula mass of NaCl _______
10) State True & False. If false, correct the statement

i) An atom of C-12 is assigned a mass of exactly 1.00u
ii) Recently amu has been replaced by unified mass unit called Dalton.
iii) Isotopes have same atomic mass.
iv) Molecular mass of a substance is the mass of one molecule of that substance relative to
the mass of one carbon-12 atoms.
MHT-CET questions
1) A metal oxide contains 20% oxygen 7) A divalent metal has 12 equivalent
by weight equivalent weight of metal weight. The molecular weight of it’s
is oxide is
a) 32 b) 40 a) 16 gm b) 32 gm
c)40 d)72 c) 40 gm d) 52 gm
2) In the standardization of N2S2O3 using 8) The oxide of an element contains
K2Cr2O7 by iodometry, the equivalen 67.67% of oxygen. Equivalent weight
weight of K2Cr2O7 is of the element is
a) molecular weight /2 a) 2.46 gm b) 3.82 gm
b) molecular weight /6 c) 4.36 gm d) 4.96 gm
c) molecular weight /3 9) Sulphur forms the chlorides S2Cl2 and
d)same as molecular weight SCl2. The equivalent mass of the
3) 74.5 gm of metallic chloride contain sulphur in SCl2 is 16 gm equivalent-1.
35.5 gm of chlorine. The equivalent The equivalent mass of the sulphur in
weight of the metal is S2Cl2 is
a) 19.5 a) 8 gm equivalent-1
b) 35.5 b) 16 gm equivalent-1
c) 39.0 c) 32 gm equivalent-1
d)78.0 d) 64 gm equivalent-1
4) Number of atom of He in 100u of He 10) The same amount of a metal combines
(atomic weight of He is 4) are with 0.200 gm of oxygen and with
a) 25 atom b) 100 atom 3.17 gm of a halogen. Hence
c) 50 atom d)100 x 6 x equivalent mass of halogen is
10-23 atom a) 127 gm b) 80 gm
5) The molecular mass of a compound (X) c) 35.5 gm d) 9 gm
9
if it’s 3.0115x10 molecules weight 11) In the combustion of 5.00 gm of a
1.0 x 10-12 gm is metal 9.44 gm of metal oxide are
a) 150 gm b) 200 gm formed. Hence equivalent mass of the
c) 630 gm d)500 gm metal is
6) equivalent mass of a metal is 12gm/mol a) 4.44 gm b) 9.00 gm
Hence equivalent mass of it’s oxide is c) 5.00 gm d) 2.22 gm
a) 24 gm/mol b) 28 gm/mol
c) 20 gm/mol d) 34 gm/mol
NEET Questions a) 35.5 b) 28.1

1) A metallic chloride contains 47.22% c) 128 d) 19.0
metal. Calculate the equivalent weight 9) The sulphate of a metal M contains
of metal 9.87% of m. This sulphate is
a) 39.68 isomorphous with ZnSO4.7H2O. The
b) 31.76 atomic mass of m is
c) 36.35 a) 40.3 b) 36.3
d) 33.46 c) 11.3 d) 24.3
2) The equivalent weight of MnSO4 is half 10) What is the molar mass of diacidic
of it’s molecular weight when it is organic Lewis base (B) is 12gm of it’s
converted to chloroplatinate salt (BH2PtCl6) on
a) Mn2O3 ignition produced 5gm residue of Pt?
b) MnO2 a) 52 b) 58
c) MnO 41 c) 88 d) None of these
11) When potassium permanganate is
d) MnO 14
titrated against ferrous ammonium
3) The equivalent weight of KMnO4 for sulphate in acidic medium, the
acid solution is equivalent mass of potassium
a) 79 b) 52.16 permanganate is
c) 158 d) 31.6 a) molecular mass /3
4) Equivalent weight of an acid b) molecular mass /5
a) depends on the reaction involved c) molecular mass /2
b) depends upon the number of d) molecular mass /10
oxygen atoms 12) The equivalent mass of HCl in the
c) both a & b given reaction is
d) None of these K2Cr2O7+14HCl  2KCl+2CrCl3
5) 20 gm of an ideal gas. Contains only +3Cl2 +H2O
atoms of S and O occupies 5.6L at 1 a) 16.25 b) 36.5
atom and 273k. What is the molecular c) 73 d) 85.1
mass of gas? 13) Equivalent mass of H3PO2 when it
a) 64 disproportionate into PH3 and H3PO3
b) 80 is
c) 96 a) m b) m/2
d) None of these c) m/4 d) 3m/4
6) Caffeine has a molecular mass of 194. 14) In the following reaction
If it contains 28.9% by mass of
nitrogen, number of atoms of nitrogen AS2S3+H++ NO3  NO+H2O+ ASO 34
in one molecule of caffeine is + SO4 The equivalent mass of
a) 4 b) 6 AS2S3 is related to it’s molecular mass
c) 2 d) 3 by
7) The density of water is 1 gm/mol. What a)m/2m b) m/4
is the volume occupied by 1 molecule c) m/24 d) m/28
of water? 15) The equivalent mass of an element is
a) 1.44 x 10-23 ml b) 1 ml 4. It’s chloride has a vapour density
c) 18 ml 59.25. Then the valency of the
d)2.88 x 10-23 ml element is
8) The formula of an acid is HXO2. The a) 4 b) 3
mass of 0.0242 moles of the acid is c) 2 d) 1
1.657 gm. What is the atomic mass of
X?
16) 6x10-3 mole K2Cr2O7 reacts M

completely with 9 x 10 mole Xn+ to
-3 c) A =
n
give XO 3 and Cr3 . The value of n is
a) 1 b) 2 d) M = A x n
c) 3 d) None of these 24) If equivalent weight of S in SO2 is 8
17) The equivalent mass of divalent metal then equivalent weight of s in SO3 is
is w. The molecular mass of it’s
chloride is 8x 2 8x 3
a) b)
a) w +35.5 b) w +71 3 2
c) 2w +71 d) 2w + 35.5 2x3
18) The molecular weight of a oxide of an c) 8 x 2 x3 d)
element is 44. The equivalent weight 8
of the element is 25) Which property of an element is not
a) 14 b) 28 variable
c) 42 d) 56
a) Valency b) Atomic weight
19) Percentage of Se in peroxidase
anhydrase enzyme is 0.5% by weight c) Equivalent weight d) None of these
(at wt of se = 78.4) the minimum 26) One gm equivalent of a substance is
molecular weight of peroxidase present in
anhydrase enzyme is
a) 1.568 x 103 b) 15.68 a)0.25 mole of O2 b) 0.5 mole of O2
c) 2.136 x 104 d)1.568 x 104 c) 1.00 mole of O2 d) 8.00 mole of O2
20) The percentage of P2O5 in
diammonium hydrogen phosphate 27) 0.5 gm of a base was completely
(NH4)2HPO4 is neutralized by 100 mol of 0.2 N acid.
a) 23.48 b) 46.96 Equivalent weight of the acid is
c) 53.78 d)71.00 a) 50 b) 100
21) If MA gram of metal A displace MB
c) 25 d) 125
gram of another metal B from it’s salt
solution and the equivalent mass are 28) 0.126 gm of an acid requires 20ml of
EA & EB respectively then equivalent 0.1 N NaOH for complete
mass of A can be expressed as. neutralization. Equivalent weight of
M M  MB the acid is
a) E A  A  E B b) E A  A a) 45 b) 53
MB EB
c) 53 d) 63
Mb MA 29) 2 gm of base whose equivalent weight
c) E A   E B d) E A   EB
MA MB is 40 reacts with 3gm of an acid. The
22) Molecular weight of tribasic acid is w. equivalent weight of the acid is
it’s equivalent weight will be a) 40 b) 60
a) W/2 b) W/3 c) 10 d) 80
30) Equivalent weight of a divalent metal
c) W d) 3W is 24. The volume of hydrogen
23) A,E,M and n are the atomic weight liberated at STP by 12gm of the same
equivalent weight, molecular weight metal when added to excess of an acid
and valency of an element. The solution is
correct relation is a) 2.8 litres b) 5.6 litres
c) 11.2 litres d) 22.4 litres
M
a) A = E x N b) A =
E
31) 0.84 gm of a metal carbonate reacts mass of iron is 28, then equivalent
exactly with 40 ml of N/2 H2SO4. The mass of copper will be
equivalent weight of the metal a) 16 b) 32
carbonate is.
a) 84 b) 64 c) 48 d) 64
c) 42 d) 32 39) A metal oxide is reduced by heating it
32) 1.0 gm of metal combines with 8.89gm in a stream of hydrogen. It is found that
of Bromine. Equivalent weight of after complete reduction 3.15 gm of the
metal is nearly (at wt. of Br = 80) oxide have yielded 1.05 gm of the metal.
a) 8 b) 9 We may conclude that
c) 10 d) 7
33) H3PO4 is a tribasic acid and one of it’s a) Atomic wt. of the metal is 4
salt is NaH2PO4. What volume of 1m b) Equivalent wt. of the metal is 8
NaOH solution should be added to
12gm NaH2PO4 to convert it into c) Equivalent wt. of the metal is 4
Na3PO4 ?(at wt. of P = 31) d) Atomic wt. of the metal is 8
a) 110 ml b) 200 ml
40) If 2.4 gm of metal displace 1.12 litre
c) 80 ml d) 300 ml
hydrogen at normal temp& pressure
34) 0.84 gm of metal hydride contains 0.04
equivalent weight of metal would be
gm of hydrogen. The equivalent
weight of metal is…… a)12 b) 24
a) 80 b) 40 c) 1.2 x 11.2 d) 1.2 + 11.2
c) 20 d) 80 41) 45 gm of acid of mol.wt go
neutralized by 200 ml of 5N caustic
35) When an element forms an oxide in
potash. The basicity of acid is
which oxygen is 20% of the oxide by
mass, the equivalent mass of the a) 1 b) 2
element will be c) 3 d) None
a)32 b) 40 42) The weight of two elements which
c) 60 d) 128 combine one another in the ratio of
their
36) If 1.2 gm of metal displaces 1.12 liters
of hydrogen at NTP, equivalent mass a) atomic wt. b) Molecular wt.
of the metal would be c) equivalent wt. d) None
a) 1.2 x 11.2 b) 12 43) The oxide of a metal has 32% oxygen.
c) 24 d) 1.2 + 11.2 Its equivalent weight would be
37) One gm of hydrogen is formed to a) 34 b)32
combine with 80 gm of bromine. One c) 17 d) 16
gm of calcium (valency =2) (ombines
with 4 gm of bromine). The 44) 74.5 gm of a metallic chloride contains
equivalent wt of calcium is 35.5 gm of chlorine. The equivalent
mass of the metal is
a) 10 b) 20
a) 19.5 b)35.5
c) 40 d) 80
c) 39.0 d) 78.0
38) 2.8 gm of iron displaces 3.2 gm of
copper from a solution of copper
sulphate solution. If the equivalent
45) Boran has two stable isotopes, Reason – Carbon-12 isotope is the
10
B(19%) & 11B(81%). Calculate most abundant isotope of carbon and
average atomic wt of boron in the has been chosen as standard.
periodic talbe 3) Assertion :- Equivalent weight of a
a) 10.8 b) 10.2 Molecular wt.
base =
Acidity
c) 11.2 d) 10.0
Reason – Acidity is the number of
JEE –Questions replicable hydrogen atoms in one
Numberical value based questions mole of the base.
1) Galene (an ore) is partially oxidized
by passing air through it at high
temperature. After some time, the
passage of air is stopped, but ht
heating is continued in a closed
furnace such that the content undergo
self-reduction. The weight (in Kg) of
Pb produced per Kg of O2 consumed
is….. (2018 Adv)
Fill in the blanks
1) The modern atomic mass unit is based
on the mass of Subjective questions :
1) Accounts for the following limit your
answer to two sentences, “Atomic wt.
o most of the elements are fractional.”
2) Naturally occurring boron consists of
two isotopes whose atomic weight are
10.01 and 11.01. The atomic weight
of natural boron is 10.81. Calculate
the percentage of each isotope in
natural boron.
Objective Questions
1) Match the columns
Column –I Column –II
A) C6H5NH2 p) 84
B) C6H6 q) 100
C) C6H12 r) 93
D) CaCO3 s) 78
a) A – (p) b) B – (r) c) C – (q) d) D-(s)
b) A – (r) b) B – (s) c) C – (p) d) D-(q)
c) A – (r) b) B – (p) c) C – (q) d) D-(s)
d) A – (r) b) B – (q) c) C – (s) d) D-(p)
Assertion reason Mcq
1) Assertion :- atomic mass ha no units
but expressed in amu.
Reason – It is the average mass of an
atom taking care of relative
abundance of all it’s possible isotopes
2) Assertion :- One atomic mass unit is
defined as one twelth of the mass of
the carbon -12 atom.
Stoichimetry and Mass Concept
Greek word
Stoichion- Element
Metron – measurement
The quantitative relationship between the reactants and product in a chemical reaction is
called as stoichiometry.
Mole concept:-
Atoms and molecules are extremely small in size and their numbers in even a small
amount and their numbers in even a small amount of any substance is really very large.
To handle such large numbers, a unit of convenient magnitude is reavired .
Mole is the counting unit of substance.
Just like Dozen,Gross,hundreds mole is used to count entities the microscopic level.
It is S.I. unit of amount of substance and symbol mol.
Defination:-
“It is the amount of substance which contains 6.022X1023 atoms, ions,molecules called as
mole”.
Ex. 1 mole H+ ions= 6.022X 1023 H+ ions
1 mole H atoms= 6.022X1023X 1023 H atoms
1 mole H2 molecule= 6.022X 1023 H2 molecules.
1 mole is the collection of 6.022X 1023 no.of fundamental particles.
1 mole is the amount of substance that contains as many entities (atoms,ions, molecules) as
there are atoms in exacted 12 gm of C-12 isotope.
The mole of substance always contain the same number of entities no matter what the
substance may be.
In order to determine number precisely the mass of C-12 atoms was determined by mass
spectrometer and found to be equal to 1.99268X 10-23gm the number of atoms in it is equal
12gm / molc 12atoms
to  6.0221367  1023 atoms / mol
1.9926  8X10  23 / C12atom
 In a simple way be can say that mole has 6.0221367 x 1023 entities or inons
 This number o entities in 1 mole is so important. That it is given a separate name and
symbol.
 It is known as Avogardro Constant or Avogadro number denoted by NA in honour of
Amedo Avogadro.
 To appreciate the largeness of this number. Let us write it with all zeroes without
using any power of ten.
602213670000000000000000
Hence so many entities (atoms, molecules or any other particle) constitute one mole of a
particular substance.
Problems based on mole concept :-
Formulae
w( weight of subs tan ce)
1) No. of moles =
m( mol .weightof subs tan ce)
w ( weight of subs tan ce )
2) Molecular weight =
no.of moles
3) Weight of substance = no. of moles x molecular weight
4) Total number of molecules = mole (n) x NA
5) Total number of atoms in one molecule = mole (n) x NA
x number of atoms present in one molecule
6) Total number of electrons in one molecule
= mole (n) x NA x mole (n) x NA x number of electrons present in one molecule
7) Total charge on any ion = mole (n) x NA x charge on one ion x 1.6 x 10-19c
w v N
8) mole (n) =  
m 22.4 L NA
In case of gases 1 mole = 6.0221367 x 1023 Particles = 22.4 Lit
Relation of mole with mass

 Mass of mole of atoms of an element = Atomic mass of element (gm) = Gram atomic
mass (GAM)
Ex.
i) Mass of 1 mole of atoms of carbon = GAM of C = 12gm
ii) Mass of 1 mole of atoms of oxygen = GAM of O = 1 gm
Mass of one mole of molecules of substance = molecular weight of substance (g)
= Gram Molecular mass (GMM)
Ex.
i) Mass of 1 mole molecules of O2 = GMM of O2 = 32 gm
ii) Mass of 1 mole molecules of CO2 = GMM of CO2 = 44gm
Relation of mole with Gas volume :
Ideal gas equation Pv = nRT
Where
P= Pressure of gas
V= volume of gas
N = number of moles of gas
T= Tempreature (Kelvin)
R = Gas constant = 0.82 atmK-1 mol-1
Volume of one mole of a gas at NTP = 22.4 lit
Since 1 mole of gas contains 6023 x 1023 molecules so,
6023 x 1023 (NA) molecules have volume at NTP = 22.4 Lit
Volume ( Litre )
Moles at NTP =
22.4
Chemical reactions & Mole concept
The ratio between reactant and product molecules is same as the ratio of their moles and
volume (gaseous substance) at NTP in a balance chemical equation.
Ex. a) Fe2 (SO4)3 + BaCl2  BaSO4 + FeCl3
Balanced equation Fe2(SO4)3 + 3BaCl2  3BaSO4 +2FeCl3
Ratio of molecules 1 3 3 2
Moles ratio 1 3 3 2
Golden key points
1) In SI system mole was introduced as seventh base quantity for the amount of substance.
2) Note that the name of the unit is mole and the symbol for the unit is mol.
3) Term molar mass means mass of 1 mole particles
4) Avogadro’s number depends upon the basis of atomic weight scale standard scale is based
on C12.
5) 1 mole of H2O = 22400 ml or CC of H2O (since it is liquid)
1 mole of H2O = 18 CC of H2O (As density of H2O = 1 gm/cc)

6) Mass of one mole of e- = Mass of one e- x NA
= 9.1 x 10-31 x 6.02 x 1023
= 0.55 mg
Ex.
1) 1 mol of hydrogen atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
2) 1 mol of water molecules = 6.022 x 1023 water molecules
3) 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.022 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride
2) Mole Atom :-
The collection of 6.022 x 1023 atoms is called as mole atom.
Ex. 1) 1 mole H atoms = 1gm = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
2) 1 mole Cl atoms = 35.5gm = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
3) 1 mole O atoms = 16 gm = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
For elements :
1 gm atom = 1 mole of atoms = NA atoms
Gm atomic mass = mass of NA atoms in gm
mass (gram )
Moles of atoms =
Gram atomic mass or molar mass
3) Mole molecules :- Gram Molecular Mass of Substance which contains 6.022 x 1023
molecules is called mole molecule.
Ex. 1) 1 mole molecule of H2 = 2gm = 6.022 x 1023 molecules
2) 1 mole molecule of Cl2 = 71gm = 6.022 x 1023 molecules
3) 1 mole molecule of O2 = 32 gm = 6.022 x 1023 molecules
For molecules
1 gm molecule = 1 mole molecule = NA molecules
gm molecular mass = mass NA molecule
mass (gram )
Mole of molecule =
Gram atomic mass or molar mass
4) Molar Mass :-
The mass of one mole of substance is called as molar mass.
Ex. 1) molar mass of Cl2= 71 gm
2) molar mass of O2 = 32gm
3) Molar mass of N2 = 28 gm
5) Molar Volume :
The volume occupied by one mole of gas is called molar volume.
At NTP molar volume of any gas = 22.4 dm3 or 22.4 lit
Ex. 2 gm Hydrogen
32 gm oxygen always contain 22.4 lit at NTP
71 gm chlorine
6) Avogardro’s number :
The number of atoms, molecules, ions or electrons etc present in mole of substance is
found to be 6.0221367 x 1023 which is called Avogardro’s number.
The number 6.0221367 x 1023 is often round to three decimal point as 6.022 x 1023 in
calculations.
It is denoted by NA
NA = 6.022 x 1023
Important :-
A mole of any substance represents (like N2)stands for
1) 6.022 x 1023 molecules ofN2
2) 2 x 6.022 x 1023 atoms of N.
3) 28 gm of Nitrogen
4) 22.4 lit of N2 at STP
Board Exercises
1. Choose the most correct option.
A. A sample of pure water, whatever the source always contains by mass of oxygen and 11.1
% by mass of hydrogen.
a. 88.8 b. 18 c. 80 d. 16
B. Which of the following compounds can NOT demonstrate the law of multiple proportions?
a. NO, NO2 b. CO, CO2 c. H2O, H2O2 d. Na2S, NaF
C. Which of the following temperature will read the same value on celsius and
Fahrenheit scales.
a. - 400 b. + 400 c. -800 d. -200
D. SI unit of the quantity electric current is
a. Volt b. Ampere c. Candela d. Newton
E. In the reaction N2 + 3H2 2NH3, the ratio by volume of N2, H2 and NH3 is 1 : 3 : 2 This
illustrates the law of
a. definite proportion b. reciprocal proportion
c. multiple proportion d. gaseous volumes
F. Which of the following has maximum number of molecules ?
a. 7 g N2 b. 2 g H2 c. 8 g O2 d. 20 g NO2
G. How many g of H2O are present in 0.25mol of it ?
a. 4.5 b. 18 c. 0.25 d. 5.4
H. The number of molecules in 22.4 cm3 of nitrogen gas at STP is
a. 6.022 x 1020 b. 6.022 x 1023
c. 22.4 x 1020 d. 22.4 x 1023
I. Which of the following has the largest number of atoms ?
a. 1g Au (s) b. 1g Na (s)
c. 1g Li (s) d. 1g Cl2 (g)
2. Answer the following questions.
A. State and explain Avogadro's law.
B. Point out the difference between 12 g of carbon and 12 u of carbon
C How many grams does an atom of hydrogen weigh ?
D. Calculate the molecular mass of the following in u.
a. NH3 b. CH3COOH c. C2H5OH

E. How many particles are present in 1 mole of a substance ?
F. What is the SI unit of amount of a substance ?
G. What is meant by molar volume of a gas ?
H. State and explain the law of conservation of mass.
I. State the law of multiple proportions.
3. Give one example of each
A. homogeneous mixture
B. heterogeneous mixture
C. element D. compound
4. Solve problems :
A. What is the ratio of molecules in 1 mole of NH3 and 1 mole of HNO3.
(Ans. : 1:1)
B. Calculate number of moles of hydrogen in 0.448 litre of hydrogen gas at STP
(Ans. : 0.02 mol)
C. The mass of an atom of hydrogen is 1.008 u. What is the mass of 18 atoms
of hydrogen. (18.144 u)
D. Calculate the number of atom in each of the following (Given : Atomic mass of I = 127 u).
a. 254 u of iodine (I) b. 254 g of iodine (I)
(Ans. : 2 atoms, 1.2044 x 1024 atoms)
E. A student used a carbon pencil to write his homework. The mass of this was found to be
5 mg. With the help of this calculate.
a. The number of moles of carbon in his homework writing.
(Ans : 4.16 x 10-4)
b. The number of carbon atoms in 12 mg of his homework writting
(Ans : 6.022 x 1020)
F. Arjun purchased 250 g of glucose (C6H12O6) for Rs 40. Find the cost of glucose per mole.
(Ans : Rs 28.8)
G. The natural isotopic abundance of 10B is 19.60% and 11B is 80.40 %. The exact isotopic
masses are 10.13 and 11.009 respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of boron
(Ans. :10.81)
H. Convert the following degree Celsius temperature to degree Fahrenheit.
a. 400C b. 300C
(Ans. : A. 104 0F, B. 86 0F )
I. Calculate the number of moles and molecules of acetic acid present in 22 g of it.
(Ans. : 0.3666 moles, 2.2076 x 1023 molecules )
J. 24 g of carbon reacts with some oxygen to make 88 grams of carbon dioxide. Find out how
much oxygen must have been used. (Ans. : 64.0 )
K. Calculate number of atoms is each of the following. (Average atomic mass :N=14u,S=32u
a. 0.4 mole of nitrogen b. 1.6 g of sulfur
(Ans. : A. 2.4088 x 1023 , B. 3.011 x 1022 atom )
L. 2.0 g of a metal burnt in oxygen gave 3.2 g of its oxide. 1.42 g of the same metal heated in
steam gave 2.27 of its oxide. Which law is verified by these data ?
M. In two moles of acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) calculate the following
a. Number of moles of carbon b. Number of moles of hydrogen
c. Number of moles of oxygen d. Number of molecules of acetaldehyde
(Ans. : A. 4 mol, B. 8 mol, C. 2 mol, D. 12.044 x 1023 molecules )
N. Calculate the number of moles of magnesium oxide, MgO in
i. 80 g and ii. 10 g of the compound.
(Average atomic masses of Mg = 24 and O = 16) (Ans. i. 2 mol ii. 0.25 mol)
O. What is volume of carbon dioxide, CO2 occupying by i. 5 moles and ii. 0.5 mole of CO2
gas measured at STP. (Ans. i. 112 dm3 ii. 11.2dm3)
P. Calculate the mass of potassium chlorate required to liberate 6.72 dm3 of oxygen at STP.
Molar mass of KClO3 is 122.5 g mol-1. (Ans. 24.5 g)
Q. Calculate the number of atoms of hydrogen present in 5.6 g of urea, (NH2)2CO. Also
calculate the number of atoms of N, C and O. (Ans. : No. of atoms of H = 2.24 x 1023,N
=1.124 x 1023 and C = 0.562 x 1023, O = 0.562 x 1023)
R. Calculate the mass of sulfur dioxide produced by burning 16 g of sulfur in excess of
oxygen in contact process. (Average atomic mass : S = 32 u, O = 16 u) (Ans. 32 g)
5. Explain
A. The need of the term average atomic mass.

B. Molar mass.
C. Mole concept.
D. Formula mass with an example.
E. Molar volume of gas.
F. Types of matter (on the basis of chemical composition).
Practice MCQS
Nature of matter & physical & chemical properties
1. The father of modern chemistry is
a) Priestley b) Lavoisier c) Dalton d) Mendeleev
2. A pure substance can only be
a) Compound b) Element c) element/Compound d) None
3. A Pure substance which Contains only one type of atom is called
a) Element b) Compound c) Solid d) Liquid
4. The most abundant metal in earth’s crust is
a) Iron b) Magnesium c) Calcium d) aluminium
5. The most abundant element in the earth crust
a) Hydrogen b) Oxygen c) Nitrogen d) Silicon
6. Which element not found in nature
a) Radium b) Technetium c) polonium d) Helium
7. Which one of the following is not a compound
a) Marble b) Ozone c) Carboundum d) Quick line
8. The direct change from solid to gaseous state is referred to as
a) dissociation b) decomposition c) Sublimation d) None
9. Which one of the following is not a mixture?
a) Distilled water b) Sugar dissolved in water
c) Liquified petroleum Gas (LPG) d) Gasoline
10. Which one of the following is not a chemical change
a) Sublimation b) Combustion c) Electrolysis d) Rusting
Measurement of Physical Properties
11. Which is the ‘SI’ unit of temperature
o
a) C b) Kelvin c) oF d) mol.
12. Mark the units which are not Correctly matched
a) Density : Kgm-3 b) Velocity of Light : ms-1
c) Planck’s Constant : J-1 S-1 d) Length : meter
13. Convert 5oC into oF.

a) 39 o F b) 40 o F c) 41 o F d) 5 o F
14. Convert 373 K into oC.
a) 100 oC b) 473 oC c) 373 oC d) None of these
15. Which of the following processes results in the formation of a new compound
a) Dissolving Common salt in water b) Heating water
b) Heating platinum rod d) Heating iron rod.
16. Which of the following is a characteristic property of both mixtures & Compounds?
a) Their properties are same as those of their Components
b) Energy is released when they are formed
c) Their masses are equal to the sum of the masses of their Components
d) They Contain the Components in fixed Proportions.
17. One Sample of air is found to hve 0.03% Carbon dioxide & another Sample 0.02%. This illustrates
that
a) Air is a Compound b) air is an element
b) Air doesn’t follow the law of Constant Proportions d) air is a mixture
Scientific notation & Significant figures
18. The result of the operation 2.5 X 1.25 should be which of the following on the basis of significant
figures?
a) 3.125 b) 3.13 c) 3.1 d) 31.25
19. Make the rule which is not Correctly stated about the determination of significant figures.
a) Zeros preceding to first non zero digit are not significant
b) Zero blow two non zero digits are not significant
c) Zeros at the end (or) right of the number are and significant
d) All non zero digits are significant
20. Howmany seconds are there in 3 days?
a) 259200 s b) 172800 s c) 24800 s d) 72000 s
21. Mark the Conversion factor which is not correct.
a) 1 meter = 39.37 inches b) 1 inch = 3.33 cm
b) 1 liter = 10-3 m3 d) 1 atm = 1.01325 X 102
22. Few figures are expressed in scientific notation. Mark the incorrect one.
a) 23400 = 2.34 X 105 b) 8008 = 8 X 108
c) 0.0048 = 4.8 X 10-3 d) 500.0 = 5.00 X 102.
23. How many significant figures are present in 0.010100 X 103?
a) 7 b) 5 c) 3 d) 10
Answer :- B
24. Which set of figures will be obtained after rounding up the following up to ‘3’ significant figures.
34.216, 0.04597, 10.4107
a) 34.3, 0.0461, 10.4 b) 34.2, 0.0460, 10.4 c) 34.20, 0.460, 10.40 d) 34.21, 4.597, 1.04
25 .Significant figures in 0.00051 are :
a) 5 b) 3 c) 2 d) 4
26. The number of significant figures in 6.02 X 1023
a) 23 b) 3 c) 4 d) 26
27. S.I. unit of energy is :
a) Kg m2 s-2 b) Kg m-1 s2 c) Kg m2 s-1 d) Kg m2 s2
28. Given the numbers 161 cm, 0.161 cm, 0.0161 cm. The number of significant figure for ‘3’ number is
a) 3,4,5 b) 3,3,3 c) 3,3,4 d) 3,4,4
29. The prefix 1018 is :
a) giga b) e x a c) Kilo d) mega
30. Correct representation of 23400
a) 2.34 x 102 b) 2.34 x 103 c) 2.34 x 104 d) None
31. Correct notation of 5.8 x 10-3
a) 5.8000 b) 58000 c) 0.0058 d) None
32. The pretix 109 is :
a) giga b) mega c) nano d) Kilo
33. Howmany minutes are there in ‘3’ days?
a) 4320 b)432 c) 24800 d) None
34. Which of the following option is not Correct

a) 2.300 + 0.02017 + 0.02015 = 2.3403 b) 126000 has ‘3’ significant figures
-5
c) 15.15 µs = 1.515 x 10 s d) 0.0048 = 48 x 10-3
35. The law of multiple proportions is illustrated by the pair of Compounds
a) Sodium chloride & Sodium bromide b) Water & Heavy water
c) Sulphur dioxide & Sulphur trioxide d) Magnesium hydroxide & magnesium oxide
36. Which one is the best example of law of Conservation of mass.
a) 6g of Carbon is heated in vaccume, there is no change in mass.
b) 6g of Carbon Combines with 16g of oxygen to form 22g of Co2
c) 6g water is Completely Converted into steam
d) A sample of air is heated at Constant Pressure when it’s volume increases but there is no
change in mass.
37.Which of the following Pairs illustrates the Law of multiple proportions?
a) PH3, HCl b) PbO, PbO2 c) H2S, SO2 d) CuCl2, CuSO4
38. 3 g of a hydrocarbon on Combustion in excess of oxygen produces 8.8 g of CO2 & 5.4 g of H2O.
The data illustrates the law of:
a) Conservation of mass b) multiple proportions
c) Constant Proportions d) reciprocal Proportions
39. In the reaction, N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 . The ration of volumes of nitrogen, hydrogen & ammonia is
1 : 3 : 2 These figures illustrate the law of
a) Constant Proportions b) Gay-Lussac
c) Multiple Proportions d) reciprocal proportions
40. A chemical equation is balanced according to the law of
a) Multiple Proportions b) Constant proportions
c) reciprocal Proportions d) Conservation of mass
41. Different proportions of oxygen in the various oxides of nitrogen, prove the law of
a) reciprocal proportions b) multiple proportions
c) Constant proportions d) Conservation of man
42. Hydrogen Combines with chlorine to form HCl. It also Combines with sodium to form NaH. It
sodium & chlorine also Combines with other, they will do so in the ratio of their masses as.
a) 23: 35.5 b) 35.5 : 23 c) 1 : 1 d) 23 : 1
43. The law of Constant proportions was enunciated by :
a) Dalton b) Berthelot c) Avogadro d) Proust.
44. 4.88 g of KClO3 when heated produced 1.92 g of or & 2.96 g of KCl. Which of the following
statements regarding the experiment is Correct.
a) The result illustrates the law of Conservation of mass
b) The result illustrates the law of multiple proportions
c) The result illustrates the law of constant proportions
d) None of the above laws is followed
45. How much mass of silver nitrate will react with 5.859 of NaCl to produce 14.35g of AgCl &
8.5 g NaNO3 if law of Conservation of mass is followed.
a) 22.85 g b) 108 g c) 17.0 g d) 28.70 g
46. What mass of HCl is needed to decompose ‘50g’ of limestone?
a) 36.5 g b) 73 g c) 50 g d) 100 g
47. What quantity of ‘Cuo’ will react with 2.80 L of hydrogen at NTP?
a) 79.5 g b) 2 g c) 9.9 g d) 22.4 g
48. CaCO3 decomposes on heating to give Cao & CO2. How much volume of CO2 will be obtained
by thermal decomposition of 50 g of CaCO3 ?
a) 1L b) 11.2 L c) 44 L d) 22.4 L
49. HCl is produced in the stomach whichCO2 be neutralized by Mg(OH)2 in the form of milk of
magnesia. How much Mg(OH)2is required to neutralize one mole of stomach acid?
a) 29.16 g b) 34.3 g c) 58.33 g d) 68.66 g
50. Iron can be obtained by reduction of iron oxide (Fe3O4) with ‘CO’ according to the rexn.
Fe3O4 + 4CO → 3fe + 4CO2
Howmany Kg of Fe3O4 should be heated with ‘CO’ to get 3Kg of iron?
a) 8.12 kg b) 4.14 kg c) 4.95 g d) 12.2 g
Answer Key
Q.No. Ans. Q.No. Ans. Q.No. Ans. Q.No. Ans. Q.No. Ans.
1 B 11 B 21 B 31 C 41 B
2 C 12 C 22 B 32 A 42 A
3 A 13 A 23 B 33 A 43 D
4 D 14 A 24 B 34 D 44 A
5 B 15 D 25 C 35 D 45 C
6 B 16 C 26 B 36 B 46 A
7 B 17 D 27 A 37 B 47 C
8 C 18 C 28 B 38 A 48 B
9 A 19 B 29 B 39 B 49 A
10 A 20 A 30 C 40 D 50 B

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Notes (Devshatwar Sir)

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Some Basic Concept of Chemistry Class-IX : Chemistry

XI Science Chemistry Part –I

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Marks Marks with Option Chapter utility Score

 1.7 STOICHIOMETRY & STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

However many big environmental problems continue to be matter of grave concern

1) Physical Classification:- It is based on physical state .under ordinary conditions of

Inter conversion of states of matter :

Pure Substance have fixed composition

The constituents of pure substance can not be separated by physical method.

They always have the same properties regardless of their origin.

Ex. Silver, Gold, Copper, Water, CO2, Diamonds

Classification of Pure Substance :-

Metals Non-metals Metalloids/

Ex. Nacl ___ Rock Salt (Found in earth’s crust)

Na2CO3. 10H2O – Washing Soda

NaHCO3 __ Baking soda

NA2SO4.10H2O ___ Glauber’s salt

CaO _____ Quicklime

Ca(OH)2 ___ slaked lime

CaCO3 ____ morble

CaSO4.2H2O ___ Gypsum

CaSO4. ½ H2O ___ POP

Mixture is a simple combination of two or more substances in which constituent substances

“Substances made by combining two or more elements in any proportion.”

Mixture do not have fixed composition

The property of the mixture is the property of its components

Ex. 1) Paint – Mixture of oil, Pigment & Additive

2) Concrete – Mixture of Sand, Cement & Water

NEET Question Bank

1) Which is an example of matter according to physical state at room temp. and

6) Which of the following statements is/are true.

JEE Question Bank

Properties of matter and their measurement

1lit = 0.22 gal

This scale is divided into 100 equal parts.

1 electron volt (ev) = 1.602 x 10-19 Joule

Board Question Bank

1) Explain physical and chemical properties.

15) Match the following prefixes with their multiplies.

MHT-CET Question Bank

1) S.I. unit of the quantity electric current is

NEET Question Bank

1) Dimensions of pressure are the same as that of

JEE Question Bank

1) Which of the following is correct

Laws of Chemical Combination

Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products

Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products + mass of unreacted reactants

Solved examples:- Problem

Cupric Carbonate % of Copper % of carbon % of oxygen

Natural sample 51.35% 38.91% 9.74

Synthetic sample 51.35% 38.91% 9.74

• Therefore he proposed the law of definite proportion.

Weight of Fe = 1.68 gm Weight of Fe =2.3 gm

Law of Multiple Proportion :

Nitrogen + Oxygen Nitric oxide

Ratio of C in compounds P,Q,R is = 3:6:12 =1:2:4

Golden key points

Gay Lussac’s law of Combining Volumes

Golden key points