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ORG

UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

CAIE CHECKPOINT
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

Property Metal Non-metal

1. Properties of Matter and Conduction of

electricity
Good Very poor

Materials Nearly all metals and non-metals have the properties

shown in the table above
1.1. Introduction For intense, one property that all metals have is that
they conduct electricity
Scientists use atoms to explain other things about matter There is a non-metal that conduct electricity
For example, a substance that has just one kind of Graphite is a form of carbon and is used to make
atom is called an element pencils. It is non-metal but it conducts electricity
The atoms of each element are different from the atoms However, there are exceptions to the rules described in
of all the other elements. the table
Many substances are made from molecules, which Some metals do not have a shiny surface, they are dull
are groups of atoms of one, two three, or even more Magnesium is an example of a metal that has a
elements dull surface
There are 93 elements that occur naturally. There is a non-metal that has a shiny surface and
Another 24 elements have been made by scientists in looks metallic
laboratories, using specially designed apparatus Iodine is used with other substances in some
called particle accelerators portable water-purifying kits.
Particles are whizzed round inside the accelerator,
and then made to crash into each other to make
1.3. What is Metal Alloys?
atoms of new elements.
Not all the metals we use are single elements, some of
1.2. Metals and Non-metals them are a mixture of metals called an alloy.
An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements or a
As the number of elements is so large, scientists divide mixture of metallic phases.
them into two groups: metals and non-metals Alloys are usually produced by melting the mixture of
The elements that are metals can often recognize them ingredients.
by just one of their properties: they have a shiny surface Example:
The elements that are non-metals do not shine. They have 1. Bronze (CuSn) is a mixture of copper (Cu) and
a dull surface. Tin (Sn).
Two examples of non-metals are: It makes a ringing sound when struck and is
Carbon, which you might see as charcoal in a used to make bells and cymbals.
barbecue 2. Brass (CuPbZn) is an alloy of copper (Cu), lead
Sulfur, a yellow substance that is used to make a (Pb), and zinc (Zn).
wide range of substances from car tires to It is strong and corrosion-resistant and is
medicines. used to make the pins in electrical plugs.
Its shiny surface makes brass a suitable
How To Classify Elements? metal for making ornaments.
3. Steels are very widely used alloys based on
The properties that scientists use to classify elements into iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni),
metals and non-metals are shown in the table below manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), silicon
(Si), Vanadium (V), and boron (Br)
Property Metal Non-metal
Carbon steels are made by mixing the
Surface Shiny Dull metal iron (Fe) with a small amount of non-
Physical state at metal carbon (C).
Usually solid Solid, liquid, or gas
room temperature They are used to make many items,
Can be shaped by Solids are usually from spings to car bodies.
pressing and soft or brittle (hard Stainless steel is an alloy of steel and
Strength
stretching without but liable to break chromium (Cr).
breaking easily or shatter easily) It does not rust as easily as other steels.
Melting point Usually high Usually low They are used to make knives, forks,
spoons, and kitchen sinks.
Boiling point Usually high Usually low
Density Usually high Usually low
1.4. The Properties of Materials
Conduction of heat Good Very poor

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There are numbers of properties that materials may have.
Here is a list of these properties with some examples of
materials that possess them.
Surface appearance
You can see based on their appearance. Are they
shiny, dull, rough, or smooth?
Hard or soft flexibility
Most materials have a hard surface, which can be due
to them being rigid.
Materials such as sponges feel soft because of
their flexibility
Rigid
A rigid material can be bent or squashed but when the
pushing or pulling force is removed, it springs back to
its original shape.
Flexible pieces of wood have been used for
thousands of years for hunting bows and they are
still used today in some parts of the world.
Malleable
A malleable material can be shaped by hammering or
by pressing, without the material cracking. It stays in
shape after the shaping process has ended.
Metals such as gold, silver, and copper are
malleable. They can be made into wires and bent
to form jewelry such as necklaces, bangles, and
earrings.
Brittle
A brittle material breaks suddenly if it is bent or hit.
You can snap a biscuit or a chocolate bar because
it is brittle.
Absorbent
An absorbent material has holes in its surface through
which water can pass and also has spaces inside
where the water can collect.
Absorbent clothes and papers are used to wipe up
spills in the kitchen.
Some kinds of rocks, such as sandstone or
limestone, are absorbent.
There are gaps called pores between the rocky
and grains and water can pass through them
or fill them up to make an underground store
of water called an aquifer
Waterproof
A waterproof material does not let water pass through
it.
There are two kinds of waterproof material: water-
resistant material and water repellent material.
Water-resistant material: Made of fibers. There
are holes between the fibers through which
water could pass. The fibers are coated in
silicones, which make the water gather up into
droplets that cannot pass through the material.
Water-resistant materials are used to make
umbrellas, outdoor jackets, and trousers.
Water- repellent material: A water repellent
material does not have any holes in it through
which water can pass
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Water-repellent material is used to make
wellington boots.
Transparent
A transparent material is one that lets light pass
through it without the light rays being scattered. This
means that you can see objects clearly through
transparent materials.
Air and water are examples of transparent
materials.
Although we tend to think of transparent material
as being solids such as glass and plastic.
Translucent
Translucent material also lets light pass through it but
the light rays are scattered. This means that you
cannot see objects clearly.
Translucent glass is used in bathroom windows.
Opaque
Opaque materials do not let light pass through them.
Most materials are opaque but one material that is
used especially for its opaque property is curtain
fabric.
The curtain prevents light from entering a
bedroom on a sunny morning and prevents
people outside from seeping into homes in the
evening.
Opaque materials are also useful in making
sunshades such as parasols and canopies
Heat conductor
A material that is a heat conductor allows heat to pass
through it.
The particles from which the materials are made pass
heat energy along from one particle to the next
Heat insulator
A material that is a heat insulator does not let heat
pass through it.
Its particles do not pass heat easily from one to the
next. Good insulators are also known as bad
conductors.
Electrical conductor
A material that is an electrical conductor allows an
electric current of electricity to flow through it.
Electrical insulator
A material that is an electrical insulator does not allow
an electric current to flow through it.
1.5. What are Pure Substances?
A sample of matter that has definite chemical and physical
properties.
Example: elements, atoms, molecules, compounds.
Atoms
Atoms are the building material of matter.
An atom consists of a nucleus:
Protons (the positive atom, +), electrons (the negative
atom, -), and protons (N)
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

Electrons in space around the nucleus. There is no chemical change that takes place
Atom is the smallest unit of an element that has all of the Each item retains its properties in the mixture
same properties of that element. They can be separated physically.
There are 2 types of mixture: Homogeneous and
Elements Heterogeneous
Homogeneous: The substance that is uniformly mixed
Element is a pure substance that cannot be separated Example: sugar and water
into simpler substances by physical or chemical means. Solutions: Solutions are groups of molecules that
Can exist as either atoms or molecules. are mixed up in a completely even distribution.
They can be found in the periodic table of the elements. Solute: the substance to be dissolved
Example: In this case, sugar is the solute
Diamond is made of carbon (C) Solvent: the one doing the dissolving
Copper is an element (Cu) In this case, water is the solvent
Heterogeneous: The substance is not uniformly mixed
Compounds Example: Sand in a glass of water or the
ingredients in salad dressing
Atoms of two or more different elements joined together Suspensions: is a heterogeneous mixture
by chemical bonds. consisting of parts that are visible to the naked eye
Made of elements in a specific ratio that is always the
same Mixture vs. Compounds
They have their own physical and chemical properties.
They can only be separated by chemical means, not Mixture Compounds
physically.
Variable composition- Definite composition-
The smallest particle is called a molecule.
you can vary the you cannot vary the
Example:
Composition amount of each amount of each
Water (H2O) is a compound made of molecule
substance in the element in a
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
mixture compound
Sand (SiO2) is a compound made of silicon (Si) and
molecule oxygen (O) The different The different
Table sugar (C12H22O11) is a compound made of Joined together substances are not elements are
molecule carbon (C), molecule hydrogen (H), and or not chemically joined chemically joined
molecule oxygen (O) together together
Potassium Chloride (KCl) is a metal halide salt The compound has
Each substance in the
composed of potassium and chlorine. properties different
Properties mixture keeps its own
Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4) is an organic compound from the elements it
properties
mainly used for the manufacture of detergents contains.
and in the Kraft process of paper pulping, It can only be
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is a common
Each substance is
separated into its
substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite
Separation easily separated from
elements using
and aragonite and is the main component of the mixture
chemical reaction
eggshells, snail shells, seashells, and pearls. Water (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2),
Molecules Air, seawater, most of
Examples magnesium oxide
the rocks
(MgO), sodium
A molecule consisting of two or more atoms of the same
chloride (NaCl)
element, or different elements that are chemically bound
together
Example: Two nitrogen atoms are joined together 1.6. What is the Periodic Table?
(N+N=N2) to make one nitrogen molecule.
Molecules are held together by bonds: ionic bonds and The periodic table is an arrangement of all the elements
covalent bonds. known to man in accordance with their increasing atomic
number and recurring chemical properties.
Mixtures They are assorted in a tabular arrangement wherein
a row is a period and a column is a group
A mixture contains two or more different substances that Elements are arranged from left to right and top to
are only physically joined together, not chemically. bottom in the order of their increasing atomic numbers.
Substances are held together by physical forces, not Thus,
chemicals.

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Elements in the same group will have the same Element 3: Lithium (Li)
valence electron configuration and hence, similar
chemical properties. Symbol Li
Whereas, elements in the same period will have an Atomic Number 3
increasing order of valence electrons. Therefore, as
Atomic Mass 6.941
the energy level of the atom increases, the number of
energy sub-levels per energy level increases. Discovered by Johan Artvedson
The first 94 elements of the periodic table are naturally
occurring, while the rest from 95 to 118 have only been Uses of Lithium:
synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors
Bromine and lithium chloride together form concentrated
The modern periodic table, the one we use now, is a new
brine which absorbs the humidity under high
and improved version of certain models put forth
temperatures. Brine is used in the manufacturing of air
by scientists in the 19th and 20th century
conditioning systems.
Alloys of the metal with manganese, cadmium, copper,
Mendeleev Periodic Table
and aluminum are used to make aircraft parts.
Dimitri Mendeleev, widely referred to as the father of the
periodic table put forth the first iteration of the periodic
Element 4: Beryllium (Be)
table similar to the one we use now
Mendeleev’s periodic law is different from the modern Symbol Be
periodic law in one main aspect. Atomic Number 4
Mendeleev modeled his periodic table on the basis of Atomic Mass 9.01218
increasing atomic mass, whereas, the modern Discovered by Nicholas Louis Vauquelin
periodic law is based on the increasing order of
atomic numbers. Uses of Beryllium:
\
Used as an alloying agent
The 20 Elements Of Periodic Table Beryllium fused with copper forms alloys which are used
in defense and aerospace industries is a typical
Element 1: Hydrogen (H) application of Beryllium.

Symbol H Element 5: Boron (B)

Atomic Number 1
Symbol B
Atomic Mass 1.008
Atomic Number 5
Discovered by Henry Cavendish
Atomic Mass 10.821
Uses of Hydrogen: Discovered by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

Ammonia synthesis is the most significant use of Uses of Boron:

hydrogen
Hydrogen is burnt as a fuel to burn in internal combustion Borax is the most important compound of boron, which is
engines used to insulate fiberglass and sodium perborate bleach.
Boron compounds are also found in homes in the form of
Element 2: Helium (He) food preservatives, especially for fish and margarine.

Symbol He Element 6: Carbon (C)

Atomic Number 2
Symbol C
Atomic Mass 4.003
Atomic Number 6
Discovered by Sir William Ramsay
Atomic Mass 12.011
Uses of Helium: Discovered by Lavoisier

Helium is used in the production of germanium crystals Uses of Carbon:

and silicon crystals
The primary use of Helium goes in altitudes research and One of the most amazing properties of carbon is its ability
meteorological balloons to make long carbon chains and rings. This property of
carbon is known as catenation

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Element 7: Nitrogen (N) Element 11: Sodium (Na)

Symbol N Symbol Na
Atomic Number 7 Atomic Number 11
Atomic Mass 14.007 Atomic Mass 22.990
Discovered by Daniel Rutherford Discovered by Humphry Davy

Uses of Nitrogen: Uses of Sodium:

It is used in the manufacture of ammonia, to produce It is used in improving the structure of certain alloys;
nitric acid and subsequently used as a fertilizer. soaps, purification of molten metals, and sodium vapor
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the Earth‘s atmosphere lamps.
and is a part of all living tissue.
Element 12: Magnesium (Mg)
Element 8: Oxygen (O)
Symbol Mg
Symbol O Atomic Number 12
Atomic Number 8 Atomic Mass 24.305
Atomic Mass 15.999 Discovered by Joseph Black
Discovered by Joseph Priestly
Uses of Magnesium:
Uses of Oxygen:
It is used to treat widely skin-related problems and
It is used in the production and manufacturing of glass attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety,
and stone products, and in mining mania, recovery after surgery, etc.
The primary applications of oxygen include melting, The flashbulbs also contain Magnesium
refining, and manufacture of steel along with other
metals. Element 13: Alumunium (Al)

Element 9: Fluorine (F) Symbol Al

Atomic Number 13
Symbol F Atomic Mass 26.98
Atomic Number 9 Discovered by Hans Christian Oersted
Atomic Mass 18.998
Discovered by Henri Moissan Uses of Alumunium:

Uses of Fluorine: It is used in the transportation of railways, trucks,

automobiles as castings.
Chlorofluorocarbons are used extensively used in air It is used in packaging.
conditioners and refrigerators.
Fluorides are also added to toothpaste to prevent dental Element 14: Silicon (Si)
cavities.
Symbol Si
Element 10: Neon (Ne) Atomic Number 14
Atomic Mass 28.0855
Symbol Ne
Discovered by Jons Jacob Berzelius
Atomic Number 10
Atomic Mass 20.180 Uses of Silicon:
Discovered by Sir William Ramsay and Morrus Travers
The element is a major constituent of ceramics and
Uses of Neon: bricks.
Silicon is used in the production of fire bricks. \n
Lightning arrestors, high-voltage indicators, television
tubes, and meter tubes. Element 15: Phosphorus (P)
The reddish-orange colored neon lights are used in
making advertising signs Symbol P

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Symbol P Potassium chloride is also used in injections.

Atomic Number 15
Element 20: Calcium (Ca)
Atomic Mass 30.974 Symbol Ca
Discovered by Hening Brandt Atomic Number 20
Atomic Mass 40.08
Uses of Phosphorus:
Discovered by Humphry Davy
One can also find phosphorus in fireworks, fertilizers, and
baking powder. Uses of Calcium:
Phosphorus also plays a role in the making of steel.
The element maintains the vital for bones and teeth
Element 16: Sulfur (S) The element aids in assisting hormones to release along
with enzymes.
Symbol S
Periodic Trends
Atomic Number 16
Atomic Mass 32.06 Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in
the periodic table
Uses of Sulfur: The horizontal rows are called periods.
The vertical rows are called group
Sulfur plays a key role in the body and is necessary for the
It illustrates different aspects of a certain element,
synthesis of some key proteins. including its size and its electronic properties.
Sulfur is an ingredient approved by the FDA for use in
Properties: electronegativity, ionization energy, electron
dandruff products of over-the-counter nature.
affinity, atomic radius, melting point, and metallic
character.
Element 17: Chlorine (Cl)
Electronegativity Trends
Symbol Cl
Atomic Number 17 From left to right across a period of elements,
Atomic Mass 35.453 electronegativity increases.
If the valence shell of an atom is not full, it requires
Uses of Chlorine: less energy to lose an electron than to gain one. So, if
the valence shell is more than full, it is easier to pull an
It is used as a disinfectant electron into the valence shell.
It is used as an antiseptic From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity
decreases.
Element 18: Argon (Ar) The atomic number increases down a group so that
there will be an increased distance between the
Symbol Ar valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic
Atomic Number 18 radius.
Atomic Mass 39.948
Ionization Energy Trends
Uses of Argon:
The ionization energy of the elements within a period will
They are used in metal industries. be an increase from left to right
It is used in the production of titanium. Due to the valence shell stability.
The ionization energy of the elements within a group will
Element 19: Potassium (K) be decreased from top to bottom
Due to the electron shielding.
Symbol K
Atomic Number 19
Electron Affinity Trends
Atomic Mass 39.098 Electron affinity increases from left to right within a
Discovered by Humphry Davy period.
Due to the decrease in atomic radius.
Uses of Potassium: Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a
group.
It can be used as a medium of heat exchange and are Due to the increase in atomic radius.
used in nuclear power plants because of this reason

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Atomic Radius Trends
Atomic radius decreases from left to right within a period
Due to the increasing number of protons and
electrons.
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a
group
Due to the shielding of electrons.
Melting Point Trends
Metal has a high melting point.
Examples: Aluminum, Iron, Copper, Tin, Gold, Lead,
Titanium, Uranium, and Zinc.
Mostly, nonmetal has a low melting point. 2. Material Changes
Examples: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, Chlorine, Neon.
Non-metal carbon has the highest melting point of all the
elements.
Also, semi-metal boron has a high melting point.
Metallic Characteristic Trends
Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right across
a period.
The decrease in the radius of the atom allows the
outer electrons to ionize more readily.
Metallic characteristics increase down a group.
The shielding of electrons causes the atomic radius to
increase.
1.7. What is Atom?
Atoms are the smallest part of an element that can exist;
The word atom derives from the Ancient Greek word 2.2. The Origin of Acid
“atomos” (a meaning “not” and Tomos meaning “cut”)
It means that it is incapable of being divided.
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
The properties of atoms depend on the arrangement of
the three sub-atomic particles**:** protons, neutrons,
and electrons
Proton - Has a positive charge ( +1 ). It weighs one atomic
mass unit and is found in the nucleus.
Neutron - Has a neutral charge ( 0 ). It weighs one atomic
mass unit and is also found in the nucleus.
Electron - Has a negative charge (-1) and almost no mass
at all. Found in orbits around the nucleus.
Citric acid in orange and
Atomic Model
Ernest Rutherford Method
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in
In 1905, Ernest Rutherford did an experiment to test the citrus fruits and blackcurrants
plum pudding model. It all started with directing a beam
of alpha particles at a very thin gold leaf suspended in
a vacuum.
Conclusion: The Acid in Vinegar
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Most of the alpha particles did pass straight through
the foil
This shows that atoms is mostly in empty space.
A small number of alpha particles were diverted by
large angles (> 4°) as they passed through the foil
It shows that there is a concentration of positive
charge in the atom.
A very small number of alpha particles came straight
back off the foil
It shows that the positive charge and mass are
concentrated in a tiny volume in the atom.
\
People have known since the time of the Ancient
Egyptians and Greeks that some substances taste sour
and some feel slippery.
Early examples of slippery substances included potash
found in the ashes of burnt wood.
Soda is made from the evaporation of some solutions.
Lime made from the burning of seashells.
Vinegar is probably the best example of a sour-tasting
liquid.
A great deal of early investigation work in chemistry was
done in Islamic countries, starting about 1200 years ago.
One of the greatest Muslim chemists at that time was
Jabir Ibn Haiyan, also known as Geber.
He worked on many investigations which resulted
in him devising new apparatus and discovering
different kinds of acids.
Scientists developed the word acid from acidus, which is
the Latin word for sour.
An acid is a substance that has a pH lower than 7
For example, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, citric
acid, ethanoic acid (vinegar)
Most people think of acids as corrosive liquids that fizz
when they come into the contact with solids and burn
when they touch the skin
Some acids are not corrosive and are found in our
food.
Acids with plant origin Acid with animal origin
Hydrochloric acid in the
lemon juice mammalian stomach
The lactic acid in muscles
Tartaric acid in grapes
during vigorous exercise
Uric acid in urine
Methanoic acid in nettle
Methanoic in ant sting
stings
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Ethanoic acid is found in vinegar and produces as wine
becomes sour.
The wine contains ethanol and also has some oxygen
dissolved in it from the air.
The oxygen reacts with the ethanol and converts it to
ethanoic acid
This chemical reaction happens more quickly if the wine
bottle is left uncorked.
Organics Acids and Mineral Acids
The acids produced by plants and animals (exception of
hydrochloric acid) are known as organic acids.
Ethanoic is also an organic acid
Mineral acids are not produced by living things and their
discovery began with the work of chemists such as Geber.
The first mineral acid to be discovered was nitric acid,
which was used to separate silver and gold.
When the acid was applied to a mixture of the two
metals it dissolved the silver but not the gold
Later, sulfuric acid and then hydrochloric acid was
discovered.
2.3. The Origin of Alkalis
The word alkali was developed from al-qaliy, which is an
Arabic word that means ‘the ashes’
Uses of Alkalis In Our Life
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solution are
examples of alkalis that are used in laboratories.
Calcium hydroxide also called slaked lime is used in many
industries to make products such as bleach and
whitewash.
A weak solution of calcium hydroxide that used in
laboratories known as limewater
It is used to test for carbon dioxide gas. If this gas
passes through limewater, it turns the limewater
milky
A concentrated solution of an alkali is corrosive and can
burn the skin. The same hazard symbol as the one used
for acids.
Even dilute sodium hydroxide solution reacts with fat on
the surface of the skin and changes it into substances
found in soap.
Many household cleaners used on metal, floors, and
ovens contain alkalis and must be handled with great care
2.4. Who’s Invented The Indicator?
Robert Boyle was an Irish scientist who lived over 300
years ago.
He studied acids and alkalis and decided to try and find an
easy way to identify them.
It all started when he knew that in France workers who
made silk clothes dyed them with the juices of plants and
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he began testing the plant juices to see if they would solve
this problem.
When acid is added to red cabbage juice, it turns from
purple to red.
When alkali is added, the juice turns from purple to
green.
He also found that juices from violets turned purple
with acid and greenish-yellow with an alkali.
There is 20 indicator that scientist use. Here are some of
the examples:
Litmus (liquid or paper)
Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic solutions
and blue in alkaline solutions. It turns purple in neutral
solutions.
Litmus solution is purple
Litmus paper for testing an acid is blue.
Litmus paper for testing an alkali is red.
Red Litmus Blue Litmus
Acidic Solution Stays red Turns red
Neutral Solution Stays red Stays red
Alkaline Solution Turns blue Stays blue
Universal Indicator (liquid or paper)
The universal indicator has many different color changes,
from red for strongly acidic solutions to dark purple for
strongly alkaline solutions. In the middle, neutral pH 7 is
indicated by green.
2.5. The pH Scale
The pH scale runs from 0-14.
On this scale, the strongest acid is 0 and the strongest
alkali is 14.
A strong acid has a pH of 0-2, a weak acid has a pH of 3-6.
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. For example, pure water.
A weak alkali has a pH of 8-11 and a strong alkali has a pH
of 12-14.
We can use indicators to test the pH of a substance. An
indicator is a substance that changes color when it is
added to acidic or alkaline solutions.
Each indicator changes color over part over a range of the
scale.
By combining the indicators, a solution is made that gives
different colors over the whole pH range.
2.6. What is Neutralisation?
When an acid reacts with an alkali, a process called
neutralization occurs in which salt and water are formed.
This reaction can be written as a general word equation:
Acid + alkali = salt + water
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide = Sodium
chloride + water
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
Sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide = potassium
sulfate + water
Nitric acid + Sodium hydroxide = Sodium nitrate +
water
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is a white solid. It is not an
alkali but dissolves in water to produce an alkaline
solution.
It also takes part in neutralization reactions with acids but
produces another substance as well as salt and water. It
produces carbon dioxide:
Sodium hydrogen carbonate + hydrochloric acid =
Sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also called sodium
bicarbonate.
Using Neutralisation Reactions
Insect stings
A bee sting is acidic and may be neutralization by soap,
which is an alkali.
A wasp sting is alkaline and maybe neutralized with
vinegar, which is a weak acid.
Curing Indigestion
Sodium bicarbonate is used in some of the tables that are
made to cure indigestion.
Indigestion is caused by the stomach making too many
acids as it digests food.
When a tablet of sodium bicarbonates is swallowed, the
chemical dissolves to make an alkaline solution, which
neutralizes the acid in the stomach and cures indigestion.
Baking A Cake
Baking powder contains a mixture of solid acid and
sodium bicarbonate.
When the baking powder is mixed with water and flour to
make a cake, the acid, and the sodium bicarbonate dissolve in
the water and take part in a neutralization reaction.
The carbon dioxide gas forms bubbles in the mixture and
makes it rise to give the cake a light mixture
A Model Volcano
To do this, you may have added a tablespoon of sodium
bicarbonate, called baking soda, to an empty plastic drink
bottle and then built a mound of sand around the bottle so
that it looked like a conical volcano.
Finally, you may have added red dye to half a cup of
vinegar, then poured the vinegar into the bottle.
Moments later a red froth would have emerged from
the top of the bottle and flowed down the cone sand,
like lava flowing down a volcano.
Fighting A Fire
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The soda-acid fire extinguisher contains a bottle of
sulfuric acid and a solution of sodium bicarbonate.
When the plunger is struck or the extinguisher is
turned upside down, the acid mixes with the sodium
bicarbonate solution, and a neutralization reaction
takes place.
The pressure of the carbon dioxide produced in
the reaction pushes the water out of the
extinguisher and onto the fire.
2.7. Types Of Reaction During The Heat
Change
Exothermic Reaction
Heat is released during the reaction
The energy gives their energy to its surrounding
As a result, the temperature is increased
Also known as a hot reaction
If the result of ΔH is negative (-), it’s exothermic
Examples: Burning, oxidation
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)=2H2O(i) + energy
H2O(g)=H2O(i) + energy
Endothermic Reaction
Heat is absorbed during the reaction
The reaction gets the energy from its surrounding
We have to provide energy, which can be absorbed during
the reaction for the chemical process that occurs
If the result of ΔH is positive, it’s endothermic
Examples: Melting of ice
Energy + 2HgO (s)=2Hg(i) + O2(g)
Energy +H2O (s)=H2O (i)
2.8. What is Reactivity?
The chemistry of the metals is studied by analyzing their
reactions with water, dilute acid, and oxygen
Based on these reactions a reactivity series of metals can
be produced
The series can be used to place a group of metals in order
of reactivity based on the observations of their reactions
with water, acid, and oxygen
Reactivity Of Metals
Metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on the
reactions of the metals and their compounds. The
reactivity series lists elements (mostly metals) in order of
decreasing reactivity. Understanding the reactivity series
is fundamental to chemistry; it explains why most
reactions happen and what changes the particles will
undergo during the reaction.
From the most reactive: Potassium, Sodium, Lithium,
Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminum, Carbon, Zinc, Iron,
Hydrogen, Copper, Silver, Gold
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

“Please send lions, cats, monkeys and cute zebras into hot If the particles collide with less energy than the activation
countries signed Gordon” energy, they will not react.

Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with Factors Affect The Rate of Reaction
Metal
Water Acid Oxygen
Reacts Reacts quickly in Temperature
Potassium Reacts violently
violently air
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction
Reacts Reacts quickly in
Sodium Reacts quickly An increase in temperature causes a rise in the energy
violently air
level of the molecules involved in the reaction, so the rate
Reacts less Reacts of the reaction will increase.
Calcium Reacts readily
strongly vigorously
Reacts Concentration
Magnesium Reacts readily
vigorously
Reacts less The higher the concentration at a dissolved reactant, the
Zinc Reacts faster the reaction
strongly
Increasing the concentration of one or more reactants will
Reacts less
Iron Reacts increase the reaction rate. This occurs because a higher
strongly
concentration of a reactant will lead to more collisions of
Hydrogen Reacts
that reactant in a specific time period.
Copper Reacts
Particle Size
Reactions In The Reactivity Series
The surface area increases when the solid is split into
Displacement reaction: Displacement means that one of several pieces.
the elements has been pushed out of the compound it The smaller the pieces, the larger the surface area, the
was in and replaced by a more reactive element (hence, greater the chance of reaction
displaced). All metals higher in the series will displace a
metal lower than it from a compound Catalyst
Equation: AB + C= AC + B
Example: A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being
Magnesium + copper(II) oxide → magnesium oxide + consumed by the reaction.
copper It increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation
Copper is less reactive than magnesium, and so it energy (minimum amount of energy needed for the
has been displaced by magnesium to form particles to react) for a reaction.
magnesium oxide and copper. This reaction is
irreversible, as copper isn’t reactive enough to be 2.10. Reaction with Acids
able to displace the magnesium.
Sodium chloride reacts with fluorine gas Acids and Reactive Metal
NaCl (s) + F2 (g)=NaF (aq) + Cl2 (g)
\ Acids will react with reactive metals, such as magnesium
and zinc, to make salt and hydrogen.
2.9. What is the Rate of The Reaction? Example:
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
The speed of the reaction Hydrochloric acid + zinc → zinc chloride + hydrogen
Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain 2HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2
amount of energy The hydrogen causes bubbling during the reaction
For a reaction to take place between two reactant In general, the more reactive the metal, the faster the
particles, there are three conditions that are necessary reaction. This is indicated by more bubbles that show
The two-particle must collide with each other up.
They must collide in the correct orientation \
The reactive parts of each particle will come into
contact with each other Acids and Metal Carbonates
The reactants must collide with sufficient kinetic
energy to bring about the reaction When acids react with carbonates, such as calcium
The rate of reaction depends on two things: carbonate (found in chalk, limestone, and marble), salt,
The frequency of collision between particles water, and carbon dioxide are made.
The energy with which particles collide Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

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Sulfuric acid + iron(II) carbonate → iron(II) sulfate + water
+ carbon dioxide
H2SO4 + FeCO3 → FeSO4 + H2O + CO2
The carbon dioxide causes bubbling during the
reaction, which is observed as fizzing. It can be
detected by passing the gas through limewater,
which will go cloudy.
Also, the reaction of metal carbonates with acids is
exothermic. This type of reaction can be used to
test unknown solutions to see if they are acidic.
3. The Earth
3.1. The Age of Our Earth
Earth is estimated to be 4.54 billion years old, plus or
minus about 50 million years.
Scientists have scoured the Earth searching for the oldest
rocks to radiometrically date. In northwestern Canada,
they discovered rocks about 4.03 billion years old. Then, in
Australia, they discovered minerals about 4.3 billion years
old.
Researchers know that rocks are continuously recycling,
due to the rock cycle, so they continued to search for data
elsewhere. Since it is thought the bodies in the solar
system may have formed at similar times, scientists
analyzed moon rocks collected during the moon landing
and even meteorites that have crash-landed on Earth.
Both of these materials dated to between 4.4 and 4.5
billion years.
What Fossils Tell Us
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals,
plants, and other organisms from the past. Fossils range
in age from 10,000 to 3.48 billion years old.
The observation that certain fossils were associated with
certain rock strata led 19th-century geologists to
recognize a geological timescale. Like extant organisms,
fossils vary in size from microscopic, like single-celled
bacteria, to gigantic, like dinosaurs and trees.
Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the
organism while it was alive, such as footprints or feces.
These types of fossils are called trace fossils, or
ichnofossils, as opposed to body fossils.
Past life may also leave some markers that cannot be
seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical
signals; these are known as biomarkers
3.2. How Did Rocks Form?
From the Big Bang to The Sun
Scientists believe that the moment the universe come into
existence it was an extremely hot, tiny white spot with an
enormous mass.
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It expanded rapidly in an explosion that has been named
the Big Bang, about 14 billion years ago.
As the universe expanded, it cooled down and the
atoms of the first element (hydrogen and helium)
formed.
The first stars and the gases and dust from these first
giants and supernova formed a second set of stars called
second-generation stars.
These behaved just like the original stars and produce
more of the same elements.
The gas and dust from them also spread out through
space.
The next set of the stars (third-generation) is the set to
which our sun belongs.
\
The Structure of The Earth
The Core
The core is divided into two parts-the inner core and
the outer core:
The Inner Core:
The inner core is a ball of iron and nickrl, which
is 2740 km in diameter
There are also radioactive elements present
(like uranium)
They generate heat, which keeps the core at
about 5000°C
The metals in the inner core remain solid even
though the temperature is above their normal
melting point, this happened due to the great
pressure of other materials in the planet
pushing on them and prevent them from
turning from solid into liquid.
The Outer Core:
The outer core is 2000 km thick and is
composed of more iron and nickel.
The two metals in this layer are in liquid form
As the world turns, the inner core moves at
different speed from the outer core caused the
earth’s magnetic field.
The Mantle
The mantle is made of rocky material and is 2900 km
thick.
It is composed mainly of the elements iron, silicon,
oxygen, and magnesium.
These atoms are joined together to make
substance called compounds.
The main compounds in the mantle are called
silicates.
The mantle is very hot, this is above the boiling point
of the rock, but the pressure of the materials above it
keep the rock solid.
The upper mantle neat the crust is cooler and is under
less pressure, this allows the rocky material to behave
like a very thick liquid.
The Crust
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The earth crust is made from much cooler rocks than
the mantle.
Although the rocks at the surface can feel cool or cold,
miners and cavers can feel an increase in
temperature as they go down into the Earth’s crust.
Rocks from parts of living things
3.3. Types Of Rocks
There are 3 types of rocks:
1. Igneous Rocks
The layer particle build-up. The weight of the layers
increases, the particles being squashed together,
Example: Sandstone, conglomerates (made with pebbles),
shale (mixture of clay, mudstones, and siltstones)
The shells of ancient living things have formed sediments
that have turned to rock.
Example: Limestone (from the shells of sea creatures),
chalk (from tiny shells of protoctists)

Igneous rocks are also called fire rocks

Rocks from dried-up seas
They formed from magma
Seawater contains many chemicals. They have dissolved
There are two kinds:
out of the minerals in the rocks and been washed down
Extrusive igneous rocks (research the earth’s surface)
rivers into the seas and oceans.
Examples: Basalt
In the process of evaporating, leaving the minerals behind
Used to form protective shielding in nuclear
to make the remaining seawater more concentrated.
power stations to prevent the escape of
Eventually, there is too little water left for all the
harmful material.
chemicals to remain in the solution, and some of them
Intrusive igneous rocks (forms within the crust)
joined together and form crystals. Rocks that form in this
Examples: Granite
way are called evaporites.
Used for decorative stonework
Examples: Rock salt and gypsum
Both rocks are made from crystals and minerals that stick
together. But,
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Basalt is formed from small crystals because it is
exposed to the air while the hot rocks cool down.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous and
Granite is formed from large crystals because it is sedimentary rocks that have been heated or squashed in
remaining in the crust. It stays warmer for longer and
the Earth’s crust.
cools down more slowly.
The change in temperature caused the rocks to change in
The way that hot rocks cool down:
their form, or metamorphose.
Rapid cooling Examples:
Some rocks cool down so rapidly when they
When limestone is heated and squashed, it changes
emerge into the air that crystals do not have time
into marble.
to form
Shale in the sedimentary rock is made from very tiny
Example: Obsidian, pumice
particles similar to those in clay and mud. When it
Volcanoes changes or metamorphoses into slate, the tiny
The first rocks to be identified as igneous rocks
particles or grains line up and make sheets of rocks
were those that formed from volcanic eruptions.
that can be split again.
There are two kinds of volcanoes:
Andesitic volcanoes: Build up the pressure and When researching about rocks you will often come across the
then erupts in a huge explosion, sending the term ‘rocks and minerals and perhaps you may wonder what
rocks and dust high into the atmosphere. is the difference between them.
Basaltic volcanoes: Eruptions from basaltic
volcanoes are usually much less violent than
3.4. Minerals
andesitic volcanoes. Mostly occur under the
sea A mineral is a substance that has formed from one or
more elements in the Earth.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks are formed from different minerals that stick
together. This is shown well in granite (made from the
There are 3 kinds of sedimentary rocks:
minerals feldspar, mica, and quartz)
Gold, silver, and copper are examples of the very few
Rocks from rocky fragments
elements that are found on their own.
Rocky fragments are produced by weathering and form Most other minerals are compounds, made from the
small particles like sand grains. atoms of two or more elements that have joined together.
They have carried down rivers and settle out when the The atoms of the elements in a mineral usually join
water current slows down. together to form a crystal structure.

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Examples: The atoms of silicon and oxygen form a
crystal substance called quartz
Each mineral can be recognized by observing its crystal
shape, color, luster, hardness, and the color of the streak.
Some rare minerals have a pleasing color, shiny surface,
or sparkle when light passes through them.
Examples: Opal, diamond, and beryl
Ores
During the formation of some rocks, particularly
sedimentary rocks, metal elements gather in large
quantities.
They are usually combined with the atoms of other
elements.
Rocks that possess large quantities of metal compounds
are called ores.
Bauxite is an ore rich in aluminum and haematite is an
ore rich in iron.
Ores are mined and then processed, usually using heat, to
release the metal from its compounds in the rock.
3.5. What is Soil?
The soil is usually covered by plants that are growing in it.
Soil allows plants to set down their roots and hold their
position in a habitat.
It also stores water and minerals for the plants to use as
they grow.
How Does Soil Form?
The main part of the soil is made from small particles or
fragments of rock. They are made when larger rocks
break up.
This process in which rock breaks up to form
fragments is called weathering.
There are two kinds of weathering: Physical weathering and
chemical weathering:
Physical weathering of rocks above ground
Physical weathering is caused in four ways: Change in
temperature, the effect of ice, abrasion, and the effect of
plants.
\ There are four properties of soil that are easy to
1. Change in temperature
When the rocks heat up, the minerals in them expand.
The minerals expand in different amounts, and they
push each other.
When the rocks cool down, the minerals contract
and spaces develop between them. After being
heated and cooled many times, the minerals
become loose and fall away.
2. The effect of ice
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When it rains on a porous rock like sandstone, the
water can stay in the rock for some time.
If the weather becomes colder, the water in the rock
may freeze. When the water freezes and forms ice, it
expands.
The ice pushes on the sides of the pores and
makes the rock crumble. Water that gathers in the
cracks of any rocks also expands when it freezes.
This makes it push on the sides of the crack and
can cause pieces of rocks to snap off.
\
3. Abrasion
This occurs when pieces of rocks rub together when
pebbles are carried in a fast-flowing river.
For example: When they blow in the wind in a
sandstorm, they rub on rock surfaces and wear them
down.
4. The effect of plants
Particles of rock blown by the wind settle in cracks in
rocks and form a soil in which plant roots can grow.
If the seed of a tree or bushlands in a crack and
germinates, the root can grow in the soil.
Trees and bushes have strong, woody roots that grow
larger every year, so if they grow in a crack they push
on their sides and break up the rock.
Chemical weathering of rocks above ground
Chemical weathering is caused in two ways:
1. Rainwater
Rainwater is naturally slightly acid due to carbon
dioxide from the air dissolving in it. The acid in
rainwater falling on rocks such as granite can break it
up into smaller particles.
2. Hot and wet weather conditions
Hot and wet weather conditions speed up chemical
reactions such as those that break down rocks.
Wet weather conditions such as rainforest regions,
rocks break down more quickly than in places with a
cold, dry climate, such as the interior of the Antarctic
continent.
The Properties Of A Soil
investigate. They are texture, drainage, the amount of air,
and the soil pH
1. Soil Texture
The soil texture is a description of how the soil feels
when you rub it between your finger and thumb.
Example: Sandy soil feels gritty, silty soil feels silky,
and clay soils feel sticky and cannot be squeezed as
well as the other soils.
2. Drainage and water boiling
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

The same amount of water is poured onto each soil A soil containing a large amount of clay is clay soil.
sample and the water is allowed to drain for the same However, if the soil is made from 40% sand, 40% silt, and
amount of time. This gives an indication of each soil’s 20% clay, it is called a loam. A loam also contains large
water holding capacity. amounts of humus and this binds the fragments together
to make soil crumbs.
3. Air in the soil As the crumbs are larger than the rocky fragments,
The spaces between the soil particles contain air. they have larger air spaces between them and this
This allows the plant roots and the soil organism to helps plant roots to respire and to grow down through
respire. When water drains through the soil it flows the soil.
through the air in the space. The humus soaks up some of the water like a sponge
Soil is added to a measuring cylinder until 50 cm3 has and holds it there with dissolved minerals for the plant
been added. Water is poured on top of the soil until roots to take up.
the level of the water reaches the 100 cm3 mark on Loam is the soil that farmers and gardeners aim to
the scale. cultivate.
The soil is then stirred to help the water enter the They do this by adding extra sand, clay silt, and humus
air spaces. When there is no more bubble, the to the soil until each is present in its correct
water lever should have fallen and its new position percentage and the pH is at the correct value for the
is noted on the scale. The volume of water now in plants they wish to grow.
the soil is found by subtracting the second water
level and the first.
4. The States of Matter
4. Soil pH
The pH of the soil is a measure of how acidic or 4.1. What is Everything Made From?
alkaline the soil is. It can be found by using universal
indicators. Scientists have asked this question for thousands of years
A universal indicator is then added and its color is and they came up with an answer. Everything is made of
observed to find the pH of the soil. matter
There are three forms of matter:
3.6. Different Type of Soils Around The Solid-state
Liquid-state
World Gaseous-state
It means that everything is made up of materials that are
In some regions in Africa, the rocks are rich in iron
solid, liquid, or gas.
minerals and when they form soils the iron minerals make
them red.
In tropical regions that have wet and dry seasons, such as 4.2. Where Can We Find Matter?
in India, weathering of the rocks produces soils rich in
clay. They have cracks in their surface in dry weather but To help you think of the world in terms of three states of
after rain, the soil swells out to fill them matter, start to think about your body part.
Soils have a low pH (acidic) if they form on granite, and
We have bones that synergized with muscle. They are
have a high pH (alkaline) if they form on limestone.
considered solid matter.
In places with heavy rainfall, the water may wash
As blood flow through our arteries, veins, and intestines.
alkaline substances out of the soil and make it more
The blood is liquid matter.
acidic.
When we breathe in and breathe out, there is an
Most plants are adapted for growing in neutral soil or
exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide in our
slightly acidic soil of pH 6. But some thrive in soils that are
lungs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are gases.
more acidic.
Example: Rhododendrons, blueberries, pines, and
ferns. 4.3. How to Tell State of Matter?
There are some plants that grow well in alkaline soil
Example: Oregano, asparagus, beech, lilac, and You can tell one state of matter from another by examining
sagebrush its properties.
Particle of
Solid Liquid Gas
Loam matter
Mass Definite Definite Definite
A soil with a large number of sands is simply called sandy
Does not Does not
soil. Volume Changed
change change
One with a large amount of silt is silty soil.

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Particle of Example:
Solid Liquid Gas
matter Butter melts in a pan during cooking and chocolate
Constant can melt in our pocket.
Shape Changed Changed
(rigid)
Freezing
Water, Oil, Oxygen, Factory
Example Gold, Iron
Fuel Smoke It is the changing of a liquid into a solid.
The temperature at which this takes place is called the
4.4. Particle Theory Of Matter freezing point
When the temperature remains constant or steady,
The particle theory states that matter is made from the freezing point of the solid has been reached.
particles. The particle theory:
The particles are so tiny that they cannot be seen with the If a liquid is cooled sufficiently the particles lose so
naked eye. much energy that they can no longer slide over each
Different substances are made from different particles other. The only movement possible is the vibration to
and the particles have different sizes and from about one position in the lattice.
The particles are atoms and molecules Example:
When molten wax runs down the side of the candle it
Particle of freezes and becomes solid before it reaches the
Solid Liquid Gas
Matter bottom.
Forces Strong Weaker Weakest
Evaporation
Close together Well separated
Particle
Tightly packed with no regular with no regular
Structure The process by which a liquid changes into a gas over a
arrangement arrangement.
range of temperatures is called evaporation.
Vibrate (jiggle) If the temperature of the liquid is higher, it evaporates
Vibrate, move Vibrate, and
but generally do faster
Movement about, and slide move freely at
not move from If the air above the liquid does not already have a lot of
past each other. high speeds.
place to place. vapor in it, the liquid evaporates faster.
The speed at which water evaporates into the air is
4.5. Physical Changes of Matter measured as part of a weather survey.
The particle theory:
States of matter can be changed physically and The particles in a liquid have different amounts of
chemically energy. The particles with the most energy will move
Physical changes are reversible reactions as they can go the fastest. High-energy liquid particles near the
forward and backward surface move so fast that they can break through the
An example of a physical change of state is one brought surface and escape into the air, forming a gas.
about by heating or cooling. Example:
A drop of water can turn into a gas (known as water
Physical Reaction vapor) at a room temperature of about 20°C while
outside a puddle dries up in the warmth from the Sun.
Melting
Boiling
When a solid is heated enough, it loses its shape and
starts to flow. This change is called melting and the solid When a liquid reaches a certain temperature, it forms a
turns into a liquid. gas inside it. The gas makes bubbles, which rise to the
The temperature at which this takes place is called the surface and burst into the air. The process is called
melting point. boiling.
When the temperature remains constant or steady, The temperature at which it takes place is called the
the melting point of the solid has been reached. boiling point.
The particle theory: If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly, its
When a solid is heated, the heat provides the particles temperature does not rise but it boils more quickly.
with more energy. The energy makes the particles The particle theory:
vibrate more strongly and push each other a little When a liquid is heated, all the particles receive more
further apart. energy and move more quickly. The fastest-moving
If the solid is heated further, the energy makes the particles escape from the liquid surface will form
particles vibrate so strongly that they slide over each bubbles. The bubbles rise to the surface and burst
other and become a liquid.

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CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
open into the air. The fast-moving particles are
released from the liquid to form a gas.
Example:
Water boils at 100°C and turns into water vapor.
Condensation
If a gas is cooled down far enough, it turns into a liquid by
a process called condensation
The particle theory:
The particle in a gas possesses a large amount of
energy, which they use to move. If the particles are
cooled, they lose some of their energy and slow down.
If the gas is cooled sufficiently, the particles lose so
much energy that they can no longer bounce off each
other when they meet. The particles now slide over
each other and form a liquid.
Example:
When water vapor that has evaporated from the sea
rises high in the air, it cools and condenses on dust
particles to form tiny water droplets (rain).
Sublimation
A few substances can change directly from a solid to a
gas, or from a gas to a solid, without forming a liquid by
sublimation.
Example:
Sulfur is released as a gas by volcanoes and as it cools
it sublimes to form solid sulfur around the opening of
the volcano. This solid sulfur is sometimes called
flowers of sulfur.
What Is The Difference Between Evaporation and
Boiling?
Speed:
Evaporation is a slower process and boiling is faster
Temperature required:
A liquid will evaporate at any temperature above
freezing.
Boiling occurs only when the liquid reaches a certain
temperature (boiling point).
Bubbles:
Evaporation does not involve the formation of bubbles.
Location of the change to a gas:
When you heat water to bring it to boiling, bubbles first
form on the bottom of the pot.
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of the water
Source of Energy:
Boiling usually requires an external source of energy,
such as the burner under the pot.
Evaporation uses the energy already in the liquid.
A temperature change of the liquid:
While water is boiling, its temperature remains
constant.
Factors Affecting The Rate of Evaporation
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There are 4 factors:
Heat
Wind
Humidity
Water evaporates faster when the air is dry
When the air is dry, there are fewer water
molecules in the air returning to the liquid, so the
water evaporates faster
Surface Area
The increased surface area will provide more surface
from which water can evaporate
So, a wet towel will dry faster if it’s spread out
rather than left folded or bunched up.
Dissolves
The particle theory explains how things dissolve in the
following way:
There are small gaps between the particles in a liquid
When a substance dissolves in a liquid, its particle
spread out and fill the gaps.
When something dissolves in a liquid to form a solution.
The liquid is called a solvent
The solid that dissolves in it is called the solute.
4.6. Particle Theory and Gases
The kinetic theory model explains that gas pressure is
caused by the collisions between the particles and their
container
This is called the Outward pressure (usually greater
than the normal atmospheric pressure outside the
container)
When the temperature is increased:
The gas particles move faster
The collisions become harder and more frequent.
This means that the pressure is also increases
When the temperature is decreased:
The gas particles move more slowly
The collisions are less hard and less frequent
This means that the pressure also decreases
Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the pressure of
the gas
The gas particles will have less room to move as the
volume the gas occupies has been decreased
This means that they will collide more frequently
with the walls of the container.
Each time they collide with the walls they exert a force
on them.
More collisions mean more force, so the pressure
will increase.
4.7. What is Diffusion?
A passive movement
The movement of molecules from a region where they
are highly concentrated to a region that less
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

concentrated. The heavier it gets, the diffusion will be slower

Example: Oxygen and carbon dioxide passes red blood The lighter the molecules, the diffusion will be faster.
cell. Temperature
Diffusion forms a homogeneous mixture. The high temperature will increase the energy. It will
increase the rate of diffusion.
Factor Affecting The Rate of Diffusion Low temperature will decrease the energy of the
molecules, it will decrease the rate of diffusion.
Concentration Solubility
The greater the difference in concentration, the faster Liquid materials or non-polar will pass through the
rate of diffusion. plasma membrane, the rate of diffusion more than
The closer it gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of polar substances.
diffusion.
Mass of Molecules

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Science

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