Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature

Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

6.1 Classification of Elements

• All matter is made up of small & discrete particles
• There are three types of particles: atom, molecule & ion
Atom and Molecule
• Atom – the smallest particle of an element & cannot be divided into anything smaller, can only
be seen using an electron microscope
• Molecule – a neutral particle consisting of two or more atoms that are chemically combined
• Structure of an atom (subatomic particles):~

• The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. Therefore, an atom is
electrically neutral because the negative charge of the electrons cancels out the positive charge
of the protons
• Relative mass (total mass of subatomic particles) of both proton & neutron is 1 while relative
1
mass of an electron is 1840. The mass of an atom is focused on the nucleus because the mass of
an electron is very small compared to the mass of a proton & neutron
• A molecule can be formed from:~
(a) Atoms of the same kind (one oxygen atom + one oxygen atom = one oxygen molecule)

(b) Atoms of different kinds (two hydrogen atoms + one oxygen atom = one water molecule)

What is an Element?
• Element – a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any simpler substance by any
physical / chemical method, made up of atoms / molecules of the same kind of atoms
What is a Compound?
• Compound – a substance made up of two / more different elements chemically joined together
in a fixed ratio
• Properties of a compound is usually different from the elements it is made up of
• Compounds can be found naturally / can be produced in the laboratory

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

Periodic Table
• Help to study the properties of elements in a more systematic way
• 118 elements (as of 2016)
• Some of the elements exist in nature. Some of them are synthesized in the laboratory
• A list of elements arranged in the order of increasing proton numbers (or atomic numbers)
• Divide elements into groups (vertical columns) & periods (horizontal rows)
• There are 18 groups & 7 periods
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties
• Chemical properties & physical properties of an element gradually change when moving from
left to right across the group

Metals, Non-metals and Inert Gases in the Periodic Table

• Elements in the Periodic Table are grouped as;~
(a) Metals
✓ 80% of the elements are metals
✓ Are placed on the left side of the Periodic Table
✓ All the elements from Group 1 until Group 12 are metals except hydrogen
✓ Metallic properties of the elements decrease across the group from left to right
(b) Non-metals
✓ There are only 20 non-metals in the Periodic Table
✓ Are placed on the right side of the Periodic Table
(c) Semi-metals (Metalloids)
✓ Are on the borderline between metals & non-metals (e.g.: silicon & germanium)
✓ Have the properties of metals & non-metals
✓ Tend to be economically important because of their varying ability to conduct
electricity makes them valuable in the semiconductor & computer chip industries
(d) Inert gases (Noble gases)
✓ Are non-metals that are arranged in Group 18
✓ Chemically unreactive (do not react with any other elements to form compounds)
✓ Properties: monoatomic (consist of one atom), colourless gases at room temperature,
have low melting & boiling points, have low densities, insoluble in water

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

Differences between Metals and Non-metals

• All metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury, which is liquid at
room temperature
• Most of the non-metals are gases & solids at room temperature. Only bromine is a liquid
• Similarity & differences between metals & non-metals:~
Similarity
Both metals & non-metals are elements
Metals Difference Non-metals
Shiny Appearance Dull
Ductile (can be drawn out into wires) Ductility Not ductile (cannot be bent /
stretched)
Malleable (can be hammered into shape Malleability Non-malleable & brittle
without breaking / cracking)
Good conductors of electricity Electrical Poor conductors of electricity (except
conductivity carbon)
Good conductors of heat Heat Poor conductors of heat
conductivity
High Melting & Low
boiling points
Strong Tensile strength Low, break easily
High Density Low
Solid (except mercury which is liquid) State of matter Solid / gas (only bromine is liquid)
• Examples of metals with their characteristics & uses:~
Metal Characteristics Uses
Reddish-brown solid, ductile, malleable,
Copper To make electrical wires
rustproof & conducts electricity
Bluish-white solid, strong, rustproof,
Zinc To make roof tiles
ductile & malleable
Golden yellow solid, rustproof, shiny &
Gold To make jewelleries
easy to be pressed into required shapes
Silver Silvery solid & can reflect light well To make mirrors
Grey solid, strong, ductile, malleable,
To make railway tracks, buildings,
Iron conducts electricity & can be attracted by
bridges, construction materials (nails)
magnet
Grey & shiny solid, strong & light, ductile, To make aluminium foils, food &
Aluminium malleable, good conductor of electricity & drink can, kitchen utensils, aircraft
heat, highly resistant to corrosion parts & high-voltage power lines
Silvery liquid at room temperature, has
Mercury Used in thermometers & barometers
high boiling point & expands when heated
• Examples of non-metals with their characteristics & uses:~
Non-metal Characteristics Uses
Iodine Purplish-black solid, toxic & antiseptic To make antiseptic medicine to
protect wounds against bacterial
infection
Chlorine Greenish-yellow gas, toxic & bleaching To make bleaching agents
Carbon Black solid, light, smooth & can conduct To make rackets, pencil leads &
electricity electrodes in dry cells
Sulphur Yellow powder & toxic To make insecticides, fireworks,
paints & cleaning agents
Oxygen Colourless gas & aids in combustion To make fuels for rocket & to
contain oxygen tanks

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

Appreciating the Order of Elements that Exist in the Nature

(a) Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) – classified elements into metals & non-metals
(b) Johann W. Dobereiner (1780- 1849) – classified three elements with similar chemical
properties into one group / triad
(c) John Newlands (1837 – 1898) – arranged all the known elements in the ascending order of
their atomic masses. He found that the same properties were repeated at every eighth element.
This pattern was similar to the octave notes in music. So, it is known as the Law of Octaves
(d) Lothar Meyer (1830 – 1895) – tried to change the elements according to the atomic volume
(e) Dmitri Mendeleev (1833 – 1907) – arranged the elements in the ascending order of atomic
mass & elements. The elements with the same chemical properties were placed in vertical
columns known as groups. Blank spaces left for undiscovered elements at that time & was
able to predict the properties of those elements
(f) Henry Moseley (1887 – 1915) – arranged elements in the increasing order of proton numbers

6.2 Mixtures
• Mixture – made up of two / more elements / compounds that are mixed physically but not
combined chemically
• No chemical reaction takes place when a mixture is formed. This means that no heat / light are
absorbed / released
• The chemical properties of a mixture are same as those of its components because no new
substance is formed
• The components of a mixture are not fixed. They can be present in any ratio

• Examples of mixtures in our daily life:~

(a) Mineral water – mixture of water & mineral salts
(b) Milk – mixture of water, sugar, fats, proteins, vitamins & mineral salts
(c) Sandwich – mixture of breads, vegetables & meats
(d) Bronze – mixture of copper & tin
(e) Air – mixture of gases, water vapour, dust & microorganisms
(f) Sea water – mixture of water, normal salts & mineral salts
Methods to Separate Mixture
• Many mixtures that occur naturally contain useful substances. However, the substances need to
be separated before they can be used
• As the mixture is formed physically, it can be separated physically too
• When a mixture is separated physically, no new substances are produced & the original
components are retrieved
• Method used to separate a mixture depends on the physical properties of the components that
make up the mixture & the components to be obtained from the mixture
• Sometimes, a combination of two or more methods are needed to separate a mixture

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

(a) Filtration
✓ Method of separating an insoluble solid particles from a mixture of solid & liquid using
filter funnel & filter paper
✓ Filter paper, which acts as a sieve, has tiny pores that can only allow the smaller liquid
particles to pass through it while trapping the bigger insoluble solid particles
✓ The liquid that passes through the filter paper is called filtrate while the insoluble solid
particles that remain on the filter paper is called residue

(b) Distillation
✓ Method used to separate a pure liquid from a liquid-liquid mixture / solid liquid mixture
which involves two processes, boiling / vaporisation & condensation
✓ Suitable to separate a solute from a solution (e.g.: separation of pure water from sugar
/ salt that dissolved in it) / separate a completely miscible liquid-liquid mixture that
have different boiling points (e.g.: separation of alcohol from the mixture of water &
alcohol)

✓ Porcelain chips can be added into the solution inside the distillation flask to avoid the
formation of air bubbles & to prevent the solution from rising to the top & entering the
Liebig condenser during heating
✓ In oil & gas industry, fractional distillation is used to separate petroleum into its
fractions such as petrol, kerosene & diesel fuel

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

(c) Separating using Magnet

✓ Used to separate mixture of magnetic & non-magnetic substances
✓ Iron, nickel & cobalt are magnetic metals while gold, bronze & aluminium are non-
magnetic materials
✓ Non-metals such as glass, paper, wood, ceramics & latex are non-magnetic materials

✓ In the food industry, a magnetic separator is used to ensure that the metal pieces such
as iron particles are not mixed with the food products
✓ A powerful magnet is used to separate iron & steel from other materials in a scrapyard
so that these scrap metals can be recycled
(d) Sedimentation Method
✓ Used for separating a liquid & insoluble solid mixture
✓ Insoluble heavy solid particles in a solid-liquid mixture are allowed to settle down at
the bottom due to gravity

✓ Water will be in the upper layer & sand will be deposited at the bottom of the container
because sand is insoluble & denser than water
✓ Sedimentation method is used in the water treatment process to obtain clean & safe
water for the use in bathrooms, cooking, for drinking

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

(e) Floatation Method

✓ Used for separating substances according to their relative capacity for floating on a
liquid
✓ Two immiscible liquids, oil & water with different densities are filled in a separating
funnel & left for a short time to settle out
✓ The liquids will form two layers. Oil will stay at the top while water will sink to the
bottom
✓ The tap of the funnel is opened to let the water at the bottom layer out into a beaker.
Then oil is drained into another beaker

(f) Chromatography Method

✓ Used to separate small amounts of substances from a mixture based on the differences
in solubility of the components in a particular solvent

✓ In the food industry, food colouring (colour addictive – any dye, pigment / substance
that imparts colour) is used to colour the food & drinks
✓ Also used to analyse samples of food colouring to identify the substances present in a
food sample. This can help to trace banned substances & ensure that the dyes used are
safe for us to consume
✓ Besides, it is used to check document fraud by separating the dyes in the ink used

6.3 Compounds
• Many other things around us cannot be found from the Periodic Table because they are not
elements. They are compounds that are made up of two / more different elements that are
chemically combined
• E.g.:~
(a) Sugar – carbon, hydrogen & oxygen
(b) Salt (sodium chloride) – sodium & chlorine
(c) Chalk (calcium carbonate) – calcium, carbon & oxygen
(d) Sand (silicon dioxide) – silicon & oxygen
(e) Marble – calcium, carbon & oxygen
(f) Carbon dioxide – carbon & oxygen

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

Formation of Compounds from Metals and Non-metals

• Metals easily react with non-metals such as oxygen, water or sulphur to form compounds, which
are new substances with different properties from the elements (metals & non-metals) that make
them up
• Some metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
• Some metals react with water to produce alkaline compounds called metal hydroxides &
hydrogen gas
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
• Some metals can also react with sulphur to form metal sulphides
Metal + Sulphur → Metal sulphide
Mass is Conserved during Chemical Change
• Principle of Mass Conservation – when a product is formed during a chemical reaction, its mass
remains the same as the mass of the reactants
• Atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but can be split up & rearranged to form a new product
during a chemical reaction
• The number of atoms remains unchanged after a chemical reaction. The total mass of products
at the end of the reaction is equal to the total mass of reactants in the beginning
• E.g.: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide
Method to Separate Compounds
• Compound cannot be separated physically like a mixture because the elements in a compound
are bonded chemically
• Compounds can only be separated by using chemical method such as electrolysis
• Electrolysis – chemical decomposition (breakdown) of a compound into its elements (simpler
substances by passing through electric current

• During electrolysis of water, water (compound) is broken

down into hydrogen gas & oxygen gas when an electric
current passes through it through electrodes
• Electrode – a conductor through which electricity enters /
leaves the electrolyte
• Electrolyte – a liquid which conducts electricity
• Two types of electrodes:~
(a) Positive electrode / anode
(b) Negative electrode / cathode
• During electrolysis of water, gas bubbles are formed on both
electrodes because the oxygen gas is discharged at anode
while hydrogen gas is discharged at cathode
• The volume of hydrogen gas produced is twice the volume of
oxygen gas produced, which is in the ratio of 2:1

• Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity. A few drops of sulphuric acid are added to water
so that the solution can be a good conductor of electricity

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

Physical Change and Chemical Change

Physical Change Chemical Change
✓ Any changes that occur alter the form / ✓ Any changes that result in the
appearance of the substance without formation of new chemical substances
Meaning
altering their chemical composition. with different chemical composition &
No new substances are formed properties
✓ Types of atoms is unchanged ✓ Types of atoms is unchanged
✓ Number of atoms is unchanged ✓ Number of atoms is unchanged
Atomic &
✓ Arrangement of atoms is unchanged ✓ Arrangement & combination of atoms
Molecular
✓ Type of molecules is unchanged but are changed, involving making /
Changes
arrangement of molecules & distance breaking of bonds between atoms
between molecules are changed ✓ Type of molecules is changed
✓ Change in shapes ✓ Change in colours
Property ✓ Change in sizes ✓ Change in temperatures
Changes ✓ Change in the state of matter (solids, ✓ Produces gases / water
liquids & gases) ✓ Release of heat, light or sound
✓ Boiling of water ✓ Burning of paper
Examples
✓ Melting of ice ✓ Rusting of iron
✓ Freezing of water ✓ Heating of food
✓ Condensation of water vapour ✓ Oxidation of apples by air
✓ Solubility of salts in solution ✓ Burning of fossil fuels
✓ Salt crystallisation from sea water ✓ Photosynthesis
✓ Expansion & contraction of matter ✓ Cellular respiration
Similarities and Differences between Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Change Chemical Change
✓ Occur in matter
✓ Mass is conserved during the change
✓ Energy needed
No new substance is formed New substances are formed
Chemical compositions of the original Chemical compositions of the original
substances & product remain the same substances & product are different
Reversible Usually irreversible
Properties of the original substances & Properties of the original substances &
product remain the same product are different
No / very little amount of energy is absorbed / Enormous energy is absorbed / given out as
given out as heat, light / sound energy heat, light / sound energy
Only affect physical properties Affect both physical & chemical properties

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Form 1: Science Theme 3: Exploration of Elements in Nature
Chapter 6 – Periodic Table

Differences between Mixtures and Compounds

Mixture Difference Compound

Physical change Type of change occurs Chemical change
during formation
No Formation of new Yes
substances
Does not have its own set of Has its own set of properties & does
properties & has the same properties Properties not have the properties of its elements
as the components it is made of
No chemical reaction takes place, Chemical reaction takes place when a
energy is not required to form a compound is formed. Usually, there
Energy change
mixture. Usually, there is a little or is an energy change
no energy change
Does not have a fixed composition, Has a fixed composition, the ratio of
the ratio of each substance in a Composition each element in a particular
mixture is not always the same compound is always the same
No Presence of chemical Yes
bond
Can be easily separated by physical Can only be separated by chemical
Separation method
methods methods

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