PHY 102: GENERAL PHYSICS II

DR. G.A. AKINYEMI

2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION
Introduction to Forces in Nature
Definition: A force is a push or pull acting on an object, capable of changing its state of motion or
shape.
Mathematical Expression:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration (Newton's Second Law).
Examples of Forces in Daily Life:
Pulling a door open (applied force)
A ball falling to the ground (gravitational force)
A magnet attracting iron (electromagnetic force)

Fundamental Forces in Nature

1. Gravitational Force
It is the weakest but most dominant force at large scales.
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation:
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
Where G is the gravitational constant, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are masses, and r is the distance between
them.
Effects:
It keeps planets in orbit around the Sun.
It causes objects to fall to the ground.
It is responsible for tides (interaction between Earth, Moon, and Sun).

2. Electromagnetic Force
It acts between charged particles and is much stronger than gravity.
It is governed by Coulomb’s Law:
 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
where k is Coulomb’s constant, and 𝑞1, 𝑞2 are charges.
Effects:
It holds electrons around the nucleus.
It causes attraction and repulsion between charges.
It is the basis of electricity, magnetism, and light.
3. Strong Nuclear Force
It is the strongest of all forces but acts at very short distances (̴ 10−15 m).
It binds protons and neutrons inside the atomic nucleus.
Effects:
It overcomes the repulsive electromagnetic force between protons.
It is responsible for nuclear reactions (e.g., fusion in the Sun).
4. Weak Nuclear Force
It is responsible for radioactive decay and nuclear reactions.
Effects:
It plays a role in beta decay (conversion of a neutron into a proton and electron).
It is essential for nuclear fusion, which powers the Sun.

Importance of Forces in Physical Interactions

Shaping the Universe: Forces govern planetary motion, star formation, and galaxy
evolution.
Technology and Applications:
Gravitational force: GPS systems, satellite orbits.
Electromagnetic force: Electricity, communication, and electronics.
Strong force: Nuclear power and medical imaging.
Weak force: Understanding of fundamental particle physics.
Everyday Life Examples:
Walking (frictional and gravitational forces)
 Magnetism (electromagnetic force in action)
Nuclear energy (strong and weak forces at play)
Worked Examples
Question 1
Two charges, 𝑞1 = 5 × 10−6 𝐶 and 𝑞2 = −3 × 10−6 𝐶, are placed 0.2 m apart in a vacuum.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force between them.
(Take 𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )
Question 2
A charge of 2 µ 𝐶 is placed in an electric field of 5000 N/C. Determine the force
experienced by the charge and state its direction.
Question 3
Two masses, 𝑚1 = 1000 kg and 𝑚2 = 500 𝑘𝑔are separated by a distance of 10 m.
Calculate the gravitational force between them (Take 𝐺 = 6.674 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2 ).
Question 4
The mass of an astronaut is 75 kg. If the gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.7 𝑚/𝑠 2 ,
calculate the astronaut's weight on Mars.
Introduction to Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest. It deals with how charges are created, their
properties, and how they interact with each other. The fundamental principles of electrostatics form
the basis of many electrical and technological applications, such as capacitors, static electricity,
and even lightning.
Electric Charge and Its Properties
Definition of Charge
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electric
field. It is responsible for electrostatic interactions and is carried by subatomic particles:
Protons carry a positive charge (+e).
Electrons carry a negative charge (-e).
Neutrons have no charge (neutral).
The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). The charge of a single electron or proton is
approximately 1.6 × 10−19 C.
Types of Charge (Positive and Negative)
Positive Charge (+): Results from the loss of electrons.
 Negative Charge (-): Results from the gain of electrons.
Neutral Objects: Have an equal number of protons and electrons, resulting in no net charge.
Conservation of Charge
The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred from one body to another. This means the total charge in an isolated system remains
constant.
Example:
If a positively charged object comes in contact with a neutral object, some of the positive charge
is transferred, but the total charge before and after remains the same.
Quantization of Charge
Charge is quantized, meaning it exists in discrete packets and is always an integer multiple of the
elementary charge (e). Mathematically, this is expressed as:
𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒
where: q is the total charge, n is an integer (positive or negative), 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C (elementary
charge).
Example:
If an object has a charge of 3.2 × 10−19 𝐶, then:
𝑞 3.2 × 10−19
𝑛= = =2
𝑒 1.6 × 10−19
This means the object has 2 extra protons.
Methods of Charging
Charging refers to the process of transferring electric charge to an object. There are three main
methods:
(a) Charging by Friction
This occurs when two different materials are rubbed together, causing electrons to be transferred
from one to the other. One object becomes positively charged, while the other becomes negatively
charged.
Example:
Rubbing a balloon on your hair makes the balloon negatively charged and your hair
positively charged.
Rubbing a glass rod with silk results in the rod losing electrons and becoming positively
charged.
(b) Charging by Conduction (Contact Charging)
In this method, a charged object touches a neutral object, allowing electrons to move from one to
the other. The neutral object then acquires the same charge as the charged object.
Example:
• If a negatively charged rod touches a neutral metal sphere, electrons flow into the sphere,
making it negatively charged.
(c) Charging by Induction
Charging by induction occurs without direct contact. A charged object is brought near a neutral
object, causing a redistribution of charges within the neutral object. The object can then be
grounded to retain the opposite charge.
Steps of Inductive Charging:
1. A charged rod is brought near a neutral conductor.
2. Electrons in the conductor rearrange due to attraction or repulsion.
3. If the conductor is grounded, some charge escapes, leaving the conductor with an
opposite charge.
4. When the external charged object is removed, the conductor remains charged.
Example:
Bringing a negatively charged rod near a neutral metal sphere causes electrons in the sphere to
move away. If the sphere is then grounded and the rod is removed, the sphere becomes
positively charged.

Coulomb’s Law and Superposition Principle

Electrostatic forces are fundamental interactions between charged particles. These forces follow
Coulomb’s Law, which describes how charges interact, and the Superposition Principle, which
explains how multiple charges exert forces simultaneously.
Force Between Point Charges
If 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 have like charges (both positive or both negative), they repel each other.
If 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 have opposite charges (one positive, one negative), they attract each other.

Effect of Medium (Dielectric Constant, 𝒌𝒅 )

In a medium other than a vacuum, the electrostatic force is reduced by a factor known as
the dielectric constant (𝑘𝑑 ). The modified form of Coulomb’s Law is:
 1
𝐹medium = 𝐹
𝑘𝑑 vacuum
where: 𝑘𝑑 = dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of the medium.
Vacuum: 𝑘𝑑 =1, so force remains unchanged.
Water: 𝑘𝑑 ≈ 80, meaning electrostatic forces are greatly reduced in water.
The implication is that materials with a high dielectric constant reduce electrostatic
attraction/repulsion, which is important in capacitor design and biological systems (e.g., charge
interactions in cells).
Superposition Principle
When multiple charges are present, the net force on a charge is the vector sum of the forces due to
each individual charge. This is known as the Superposition Principle.
Force Due to Multiple Charges
For a charge 𝑞0 experiencing forces from multiple other charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , …the net force is:
𝐅net = 𝐅1 + 𝐅2 + 𝐅3 + ⋯
where each force 𝐅𝑖 follows Coulomb’s Law and is treated as a vector.
Vector Addition of Forces
Since force is a vector quantity (having both magnitude and direction), we must use vector addition
when calculating net force. If the forces are along the same line, simple addition/subtraction is
used. Otherwise, vector components (trigonometry) are needed.
Example:
Three charges are placed along a straight line:
𝑞1 = +2.0 × 10−6 C at 𝑥 = 0 m.
𝑞2 = −3.0 × 10−6 C at 𝑥 = 0.3 m.
𝑞3 = +4.0 × 10−6 C at 𝑥 = 0.6 m.
Find the net force on 𝑞2 .
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate 𝐹12 (Force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 )
∣ 𝑞1 𝑞2 ∣ 9
(2.0 × 10−6 )(3.0 × 10−6 )
𝐹12 = 𝑘 = (8.99 × 10 )
𝑟2 (0.3)2
𝐹12 = 0.599 N
Since 𝑞1 is positive and 𝑞2 is negative, the force is attractive (towards 𝑞1 ).
Step 2: Calculate 𝐹32 (Force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞3 )
∣ 𝑞3 𝑞2 ∣ 9
(4.0 × 10−6 )(3.0 × 10−6 )
𝐹32 = 𝑘 = (8.99 × 10 )
𝑟2 (0.3)2
𝐹32 = 1.198 N
Since 𝑞3 is positive and 𝑞2 is negative, the force is attractive (towards 𝑞3 ).
Step 3: Find the Net Force
Since both forces act in opposite directions, the net force is:
𝐹net = 𝐹32 − 𝐹12 = 1.198 − 0.599 = 0.599 N.
Directed towards 𝑞3 .
4. Electric Field and Electric Potential
Introduction
The concepts of electric field and electric potential are fundamental in electrostatics. The electric
field represents the force experienced by a charge, while electric potential helps understand energy
changes in an electric field.
1. Electric Field (E)
Definition and Representation
The electric field at a point is the force per unit charge experienced by a small positive test charge
placed at that point. Mathematically, it is given by:
𝐅
𝐄=
𝑞
where
𝐄= electric field (N/C),
𝐅= electrostatic force (N),
𝑞 = test charge (C).
The electric field is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. It points away
from positive charges and toward negative charges.
Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines help visualize the field:
• Lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges.
• Field lines never cross each other.
 • Density of field lines represents the field strength (closer lines mean a stronger field).

Electric Field Due to Point Charges

For a single point charge 𝑄, the electric field at a distance r is:
∣𝑄∣
𝐸=𝑘
𝑟2
where: 𝑘 = 8.99 × 109 N·m²/C² (Coulomb’s constant),
• 𝑄 = source charge (C),
• r = distance from the charge (m).
Example Calculation
Find the electric field 0.2 m away from a charge 𝑄 = +5.0 × 10−6 C.
Solution
5.0 × 10−6
9
𝐸 = (8.99 × 10 )
(0.2)2
𝐸 = 1.12 × 106 N/C
Directed away from the charge (since it is positive).
Electric Field Due to a Distribution of Charges
For multiple charges, the net electric field is found using the principle of superposition:
𝐄net = 𝐄1 + 𝐄2 + 𝐄3 + ⋯
Each individual field is calculated separately and then added as vectors.

2. Electric Potential (V)

Definition and Relationship with Electric Field
Electric potential 𝑉 is the potential energy per unit charge at a point in an electric field. It is given
by:
𝑈
𝑉=
𝑞
where: V = electric potential (volts, V), U = electric potential energy (J) and q = test charge (C).
The electric potential is a scalar quantity, meaning it has magnitude only (no direction).
Relationship Between V and E
The electric field and electric potential are related as:
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑟

This equation shows that the electric field is the rate of change of potential with respect to distance.
Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge
For a single point charge Q, the electric potential at a distance r is:
𝑄
𝑉=𝑘
𝑟
where k = 8.99 × 109 N·m²/C²,
Q = charge (C),
r = distance from charge (m).
Example
Find the electric potential at a distance of 0.2 m from a charge 𝑄 = +5.0 × 10−6 C.
5.0 × 10−6
𝑉 = (8.99 × 109 )
0.2
𝑉 = 2.25 × 105 V
Electric Potential Due to Multiple Charges
For multiple charges, the total potential is the algebraic sum of individual potentials:
𝑉total = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯
Unlike electric fields (which require vector addition), potentials are scalars and can be added
directly.
Equipotential Surfaces
Definition
An equipotential surface is a surface where the electric potential is constant.
Properties of Equipotential Surfaces
No work is done when moving a charge along an equipotential surface.
Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to electric field lines.
In a uniform field, equipotentials are parallel planes. Around a point charge, equipotential
surfaces are concentric spheres.
Example:
In a parallel plate capacitor, equipotential lines are equally spaced horizontal lines between the
plates.

Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law is a fundamental principle in electrostatics that relates the electric flux through a
closed surface to the total charge enclosed within that surface. It provides an elegant way to
calculate electric fields, especially in cases with high symmetry.
Statement and Mathematical Form of Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law states that:
"The total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total charge enclosed within
the surface."
Mathematically, Gauss’s Law is expressed as:
𝑄enc
∮𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝑆 𝜖0
where:
• ∮𝑆 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 is the total electric flux through a closed surface S,

• 𝐄 is the electric field (N/C),

• 𝑑𝐀 is a small surface element (m²),
• 𝑄enc is the total charge enclosed by the surface (C),
• 𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C²/N·m² is the permittivity of free space.
Electric Flux
Electric flux represents the total number of electric field lines passing through a given surface. It
is given by:

Φ𝐸 = ∮𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀
𝑆

• If the field lines exit the surface, flux is positive.

• If the field lines enter the surface, flux is negative.
• If no net charge is enclosed, the net flux is zero.
Applications of Gauss’s Law to Symmetric Charge Distributions
Gauss’s Law is most useful for calculating electric fields when the charge distribution exhibits
high symmetry (spherical, cylindrical, or planar).
Electric Field Due to a Point Charge (Spherical Symmetry)
Consider a point charge Q at the center of a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r. By symmetry,
the electric field E is the same at all points on the sphere (𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) and is directed radially
outward.
Applying Gauss’s Law:
𝑄
∮𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 𝐸 ∮𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝑆 𝑆 𝜖0
Solving for E, since surface S is a sphere and the surface area of a sphere is
 4𝜋𝑟 2
Then,
𝑄
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

This result is identical to Coulomb’s Law for a point charge:

𝑄 1
𝐸=𝑘 2
,𝑘 =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0
Key Observations:
The field behaves as if all charge were concentrated at the center.
Outside the charge, the electric field follows an inverse-square law.
Electric Field Due to an Infinite Line Charge (Cylindrical Symmetry)
Consider an infinitely long line charge with uniform linear charge density 𝜆 (Charge per unit length
(C/m)). Let us choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length L.
By symmetry, the electric field is radial and constant at all points on the cylinder’s surface. (i.e,
Since the electric field due to an infinitely long, uniformly charged line is radially outward
and has the same magnitude at all points on the cylindrical surface, meaning 𝐄 is constant, we
simplify by applying Gauss’s Law:

∮𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 𝐸 ∮𝑑𝐴
𝑆 𝑆

The lateral surface area of a cylinder is:

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
𝜆𝐿
∮𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) =
𝑆 𝜖0
Then,
𝜆𝐿
𝐄 ∮. 𝑑𝐀 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) =
𝑆 𝜖0
Solving for 𝐸:
𝜆
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
Key Observations:
The field decreases as 1/𝑟 (not 1/𝑟 2 like a point charge).
The field is directed radially outward for a positive line charge and inward for a negative
line charge.
Electric Field Due to an Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge (Planar Symmetry)
Consider an infinite plane of charge with uniform surface charge density 𝜎 (C/m²). By symmetry,
the electric field is perpendicular to the surface and equal on both sides. Applying Gauss’s Law:
𝜎𝐴
∮𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 𝐸(𝐴) + 𝐸(𝐴) = 2𝐸𝐴 =
𝑆 𝜖0
Solving 𝐄:
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜖0
Key Observations:
The field is constant everywhere, independent of distance from the sheet.
The field points away from a positively charged plane and toward a negatively charged
plane.
A Gaussian surface is a closed, imaginary surface used in Gauss’s Law to simplify the calculation
of electric flux and electric fields due to symmetric charge distributions. It is specifically chosen
to take advantage of symmetry so that the electric field can be easily determined.
If we just say “surface,” it could refer to any physical or abstract surface, whereas a Gaussian
surface is a special mathematical tool designed for applying Gauss’s Law.
Capacitors and Capacitance
Capacitors are essential components in electrical and electronic circuits, used for energy storage,
filtering, and signal processing.
Capacitance (𝐶) is the ability of a system to store electric charge per unit voltage.
It is defined mathematically as:
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
where:
𝐶 = capacitance (in farads, F)
𝑄 = charge stored (in coulombs, C)
𝑉 = voltage applied (in volts, V)
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), named after Michael Faraday.
A higher capacitance means the capacitor can store more charge for a given voltage.
Parallel Plate Capacitor and its Capacitance Formula
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating
material (dielectric).

For a parallel plate capacitor:

𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

where:
𝜀0 = permittivity of free space (8.85 × 10−12F/m)
𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
𝐴= area of one plate (m²)
𝑑 = distance between plates (m)
Equation for a Vacuum (or Air) is given as:
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
This equation applies when the space between the capacitor plates is vacuum or air (which has
𝜀𝑟 ≈ 1)
Since 𝜀𝑟 = 1in a vacuum, it simplifies to only depend on 𝜀0 , the permittivity of free space.
The capacitance is lower compared to when a dielectric is used.
The presence of a dielectric will increase capacitance by a factor of 𝜀𝑟 (dielectric constant).
The new capacitance is:
𝐶 ′ = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶
Why? The dielectric reduces the electric field, allowing more charge to be stored for the same
voltage.
Larger plate area (𝐴) → Higher capacitance
Smaller separation distance (𝑑) → Higher capacitance
Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance
A dielectric is an insulating material (e.g., air, glass, mica, plastic) placed between the plates of a
capacitor.
Applications: Dielectrics are used in capacitors to enhance performance in circuits.
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
A capacitor stores electrical energy in the electric field between its plates.
The energy stored is given by:
1 2
𝑈= 𝐶𝑉
2
where:
𝑈 = energy stored (joules, J)
𝐶 = capacitance (farads, F)
𝑉 = voltage (volts, V)
NOTE:
More capacitance → More energy stored
Higher voltage → More energy stored
Energy is released when the capacitor discharges, useful in applications like camera
flashes and backup power supplies.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Capacitors in Parallel
The total capacitance increases because each capacitor provides additional charge
storage.
Formula:
𝐶eq = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯

Example: If 𝐶1 = 5 𝐹 and 𝐶2 = 10 𝐹. Then,

𝐶eq = 5 + 10 = 15 F

Capacitors in Series
 The total capacitance decreases because the voltage divides among capacitors.
Formula:
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝐶eq 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Example: If 𝐶1 = 5 F and 𝐶2 = 10 F, then

1 1 1 2 1 3
= + = + =
𝐶eq 5 10 10 10 10
10
𝐶eq = ≈ 3.33 F
3
Note:
Parallel connection → Higher capacitance
Series connection → Lower capacitance
Used in circuit design to achieve desired capacitance values.
Applications
Camera flash units
Power supply filtering, Electric vehicle energy storage, Signal processing in AC circuits.
Electric Dipoles
Electric dipoles play a fundamental role in electromagnetism, molecular physics, and electronic
applications.
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges (+𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑞 ) separated by a
fixed distance 𝑑.
Dipole moment (𝐩) is a vector quantity that describes the strength and orientation of the dipole:
𝐩 = 𝑞𝐝
where:
𝑞 = magnitude of the charge
𝑑 = distance between the charges
Dipole moment points from the negative charge to the positive charge.
Examples of Electric Dipoles:
Water molecules (H₂O)
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other polar molecules
 Antenna elements in communication systems
Electric Field Due to a Dipole
The electric field of a dipole is different at different points:
On the axial line (along the dipole axis):
1 2𝑝
𝐸axial =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Stronger compared to the field at the equatorial position.
Direction: Along the dipole moment vector.
On the equatorial line (perpendicular to the dipole axis):
1 𝑝
𝐸equatorial =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Weaker compared to the axial position.
Direction: Opposite to the dipole moment.
Electric Potential Due to a Dipole
At a general point 𝑃 at a distance 𝑟 from the dipole:
1 𝑝cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
where:
𝜃 is the angle between the dipole axis and the position vector of point 𝑃.
1
Note: Unlike a single charge, the potential of a dipole falls off faster (∝ 𝑟 2).

Torque on a Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform external electric field 𝐄 it experiences a
torque:
𝝉=𝐩×𝐄
or in magnitude:
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸sin 𝜃
where:
𝜏 = torque acting on the dipole
𝐩 = dipole moment
 𝐸 = external electric field strength
𝜃 = angle between 𝐩 and 𝐸
Effects of Torque on the Dipole
If 𝜃 = 0∘ or 180∘ torque is zero (stable and unstable equilibrium points).
If 𝜃 = 90∘ , torque is maximum and the dipole aligns with the field.
The dipole tends to align itself with the external field, which is the principle behind
dipole rotation in electric fields.
Applications of Dipoles
Dipoles in Molecular Physics
Many molecules (e.g., water, ammonia) exhibit permanent dipole moments, influencing
their chemical and physical properties.
Polar molecules interact with electric fields, which is essential in microwave heating and
electrostatic precipitation.
Dipoles in Antennas
Dipole antennas are widely used in radio and communication systems.
They function by oscillating charges, producing electromagnetic waves.
Dielectric Materials
Electric dipoles in dielectric materials contribute to capacitance enhancement in
capacitors.
They realign in response to external fields, affecting material polarization.
Discussion Questions:
1. How does a dipole behave in a non-uniform electric field?
2. Why does the electric field of a dipole decrease faster than that of a single charge?