Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.
)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
MBA-HEALTHCARE & HOSPITAL MANAGEMENT
Subject: [Unit-2]
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Concept of sampling: -
The concept of sampling is a fundamental aspect of statistical research,
allowing researchers to make inferences about a larger population
based on a smaller, representative subset of individuals or
observations. Here are the key aspects of the concept of sampling
Types of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling: Every member of the population has a known
chance of being selected.
2. Non-Probability Sampling: Members are selected based on
convenience, judgment, or other non-random criteria.
Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected.
2. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is divided into
subgroups (strata), and random samples are drawn from each stratum.
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and random
samples of clusters are selected.
4. Systematic Sampling: Every nth member of the population is
selected.
5. Multistage Sampling: A combination of the above methods is used.
Page 2 of 21
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Sampling Frame
A sampling frame is the list or database from which the sample is
drawn. It should be representative of the population and up-to-date.
Sample Size
The sample size is the number of individuals or observations selected
for the study. It depends on the desired level of precision, confidence,
and the variability of the population.
Sampling Error
Sampling error occurs when the sample statistic differs from the
population parameter due to chance.
Bias and Variability
Bias refers to systematic errors in the sampling process, while
variability refers to random errors.
Importance of Sampling
1. Cost-Effective: Sampling is often less expensive than conducting a
census.
2. Time-Efficient: Sampling can provide quick results, allowing for timely
decision-making.
3. Increased Accuracy: Sampling can provide more accurate results than
a census, especially for large populations.
4. Improved Generalizability: Sampling allows researchers to make
inferences about a larger population.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a type of sampling method where every member
of the population has a known chance of being selected. This approach
ensures that the sample is representative of the population, allowing
researchers to make inferences about the population based on the
sample data.
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS): Every member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected.
2. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is divided into
subgroups (strata), and random samples are drawn from each stratum.
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and random
samples of clusters are selected.
4. Systematic Sampling: Every nth member of the population is
selected.
5. Multistage Sampling: A combination of the above methods is used.
Characteristics of Probability Sampling
1. Random Selection: Members are selected randomly from the
population.
2. Known Probability: Every member has a known chance of being
selected.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
3. Representative Sample: The sample is representative of the
population.
4. Generalizability: Results can be generalized to the population.
Advantages of Probability Sampling
1. Unbiased Sample: The sample is free from bias.
2. Representative Sample: The sample represents the population.
3. Generalizability: Results can be generalized to the population.
4. Reliable Estimates: Probability sampling provides reliable estimates
of population parameters.
Disadvantages of Probability Sampling
1. Time-Consuming: Probability sampling can be time-consuming,
especially for large populations.
2. Resource-Intensive: Probability sampling requires significant
resources, including funding and personnel.
3. Complexity: Probability sampling methods can be complex and
require specialized expertise.
Real-World Applications of Probability Sampling
1. Market Research: Probability sampling is used to select
representative samples of consumers for market research studies.
2. Social Surveys: Probability sampling is used to select representative
samples of individuals for social surveys, such as the US Census.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
3. Medical Research: Probability sampling is used to select
representative samples of patients for medical research studies.
4. Quality Control: Probability sampling is used to select representative
samples of products for quality control inspections.
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is a type of sampling method where members
are selected based on non-random criteria, such as convenience,
judgment, or other non-random factors. This approach does not
provide a known probability of selection for each member of the
population, and therefore, the sample may not be representative of the
population.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Convenience Sampling: Members are selected based on ease of
access or convenience.
2. Judgment Sampling: Members are selected based on the researcher's
judgment or expertise.
3. Quota Sampling: Members are selected to match a predetermined
quota or characteristics.
4. Snowball Sampling: Existing members recruit new members for the
study.
5. Purposive Sampling: Members are selected based on their relevance
or expertise.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Characteristics of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Non-Random Selection: Members are selected based on non-random
criteria.
2. Unknown Probability: The probability of selection for each member is
unknown.
3. Lack of Representativeness: The sample may not be representative of
the population.
4. Bias and Error: Non-probability sampling methods can introduce bias
and error into the study.
Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Time-Efficient: Non-probability sampling methods can be faster and
more efficient than probability sampling methods.
2. Cost-Effective: Non-probability sampling methods can be less
expensive than probability sampling methods.
3. Flexibility: Non-probability sampling methods can be more flexible
and adaptable to changing research needs.
4. Expertise: Non-probability sampling methods can allow researchers
to select participants with specific expertise or characteristics.
Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Lack of Generalizability: Results may not be generalizable to the
population.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
2. Bias and Error: Non-probability sampling methods can introduce bias
and error into the study.
3. Lack of Representativeness: The sample may not be representative of
the population.
4. Limited External Validity: Results may have limited external validity.
Real-World Applications of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Pilot Studies: Non-probability sampling methods can be used to
conduct pilot studies or feasibility studies.
2. Exploratory Research: Non-probability sampling methods can be
used to conduct exploratory research or qualitative studies.
3. Case Studies: Non-probability sampling methods can be used to
select participants for case studies.
4. Expert Interviews: Non-probability sampling methods can be used to
select experts for interviews.
Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques are methods used to select a subset of individuals
or observations from a larger population. Here are some common
sampling techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has
Probability Sampling Techniques
an equal chance of being selected.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
2. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is divided into
subgroups (strata), and random samples are drawn from each stratum.
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and random
samples of clusters are selected.
4. Systematic Sampling: Every nth member of the population is
selected.
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Convenience Sampling: Members are selected based on ease of
access or convenience.
2. Judgment Sampling: Members are selected based on the researcher's
judgment or expertise.
3. Quota Sampling: Members are selected to match a predetermined
quota or characteristics.
4. Snowball Sampling: Existing members recruit new members for the
study.
5. Purposive Sampling: Members are selected based on their relevance
or expertise.
Other Sampling Techniques
1. Accidental Sampling: Members are selected based on accidental or
chance encounters.
2. Volunteer Sampling: Members are selected based on their
willingness to participate.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
3. Referral Sampling: Members are selected based on referrals from
existing members.
4. Response-Dependent Sampling: Members are selected based on
their response to a survey or questionnaire.
Considerations for Choosing a Sampling Technique
1. Research Objectives: The sampling technique should align with the
research objectives and questions.
2. Population Characteristics: The sampling technique should take into
account the characteristics of the population, such as size, diversity,
and accessibility.
3. Resource Constraints: The sampling technique should be feasible
within the available resources, including time, budget, and personnel.
4. Bias and Error: The sampling technique should minimize bias and
error to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results.
The size of the sample, also known as sample size, is the number of
observations or individuals selected from a population for a study or
survey. Determining the appropriate sample size is crucial to ensure
that the results are reliable, accurate, and generalizable to the
population.
Size of Sample
Factors Affecting Sample Size
1. Desired Level of Precision: The smaller the margin of error, the larger
the sample size required.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
2. Confidence Level: A higher confidence level (e.g., 99% vs. 95%)
requires a larger sample size.
3. Population Variability: A more variable population requires a larger
sample size to capture the variability.
4. Research Question and Objectives: The sample size may vary
depending on the research question, objectives, and study design.
5. Resource Constraints: Time, budget, and personnel constraints may
limit the sample size.
Methods for Determining Sample Size
1. Cochran's Formula: A widely used formula for determining sample
size, which takes into account the desired level of precision, confidence
level, and population variability.
2. Sample Size Formulas for Proportions: Formulas for determining
sample size when estimating proportions or percentages.
3. Sample Size Formulas for Means: Formulas for determining sample
size when estimating means or averages.
4. Power Analysis: A method for determining sample size based on the
desired level of statistical power.
Common Sample Size Ranges
1. Small Sample Sizes: Less than 30 observations (e.g., pilot studies,
qualitative research).
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
2. Medium Sample Sizes: 30-100 observations (e.g., small-scale surveys,
experiments).
3. Large Sample Sizes: 100-1,000 observations (e.g., large-scale surveys,
studies).
4. Very Large Sample Sizes: More than 1,000 observations (e.g., big data
analytics, national surveys.
Importance of Sample Size
1. Reliability and Accuracy: A sufficient sample size ensures reliable and
accurate results.
2. Generalizability: A representative sample size allows for
generalization to the population.
3. Statistical Power: A sufficient sample size ensures adequate
statistical power to detect significant effects.
4. Resource Efficiency: Determining the optimal sample size helps
allocate resources efficiently.
Sample Distribution
A sampling distribution is a probability distribution of a statistic (such as
the mean or proportion) that is obtained from repeated samples of the
same size from the same population. It describes the variability of the
statistic across different samples.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Key Characteristics of a Sampling Distribution
1. Mean: The mean of the sampling distribution is equal to the
population parameter.
2. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution is known as the standard error.
3. Shape: The shape of the sampling distribution can be approximately
normal, even if the population distribution is not normal, thanks to the
Central Limit Theorem (CLT).
4. Variability: The sampling distribution shows the variability of the
statistic across different samples.
Types of Sampling Distributions
1. Sampling Distribution of the Mean: Describes the variability of the
sample mean across different samples.
2. Sampling Distribution of the Proportion: Describes the variability of
the sample proportion across different samples.
3. Sampling Distribution of the Variance: Describes the variability of the
sample variance across different samples.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Importance of Sampling Distributions
1. Inference: Sampling distributions are used to make inferences about
the population parameter based on the sample statistic.
2. Hypothesis Testing: Sampling distributions are used to test
hypotheses about the population parameter.
3. Confidence Intervals: Sampling distributions are used to construct
confidence intervals for the population parameter.
4. Estimation: Sampling distributions are used to estimate the
population parameter.
Factors Affecting Sampling Distributions
1. Sample Size: Increasing the sample size reduces the variability of the
sampling distribution.
2. Population Variability: Increasing the population variability increases
the variability of the sampling distribution.
3. Sampling Method: Different sampling methods (e.g., simple random
sampling, stratified sampling) can affect the shape and variability of the
sampling distribution.
Central Limit Theorem (CLT)
The CLT states that, given certain conditions, the sampling distribution
of the mean will be approximately normal, even if the population
distribution is not normal. This theorem is fundamental to statistical
inference and is used to make predictions about the population mean
based on the sample mean.
Page 14 of 21
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Sampling Error
Sampling error is the difference between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter. It occurs because the sample is
not a perfect representation of the population, and the statistic
calculated from the sample is not exactly equal to the population
parameter.
Types of Sampling Error
1. Random Sampling Error: This type of error occurs due to chance, and
it can be reduced by increasing the sample size.
2. Systematic Sampling Error: This type of error occurs due to a flaw in
the sampling design or data collection process, and it cannot be
reduced by increasing the sample size.
3. Non-Sampling Error: This type of error occurs due to factors other
than sampling, such as data entry errors or non-response.
Sources of Sampling Error
1. Sampling Frame Error: Error that occurs when the sampling frame
does not accurately represent the population.
2. Non-Response Error: Error that occurs when some members of the
sample do not respond or provide incomplete data.
3. Measurement Error: Error that occurs when the data collection
instrument is flawed or the data is collected incorrectly.
4. Sampling Method Error: Error that occurs when the sampling method
is flawed or biased.
Page 15 of 21
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Consequences of Sampling Error
1. Biased Estimates: Sampling error can lead to biased estimates of
population parameters.
2. Increased Variability: Sampling error can increase the variability of
sample statistics.
3. Decreased Precision: Sampling error can decrease the precision of
sample estimates.
4. Incorrect Conclusions: Sampling error can lead to incorrect
conclusions about the population.
Reducing Sampling Error
1. Increase Sample Size: Increasing the sample size can reduce random
sampling error.
2. Improve Sampling Design: Improving the sampling design can reduce
systematic sampling error.
3. Use Multiple Sampling Methods: Using multiple sampling methods
can reduce sampling error.
4. Validate Data: Validating data can reduce measurement error and
non-sampling error.
Page 16 of 21
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Criteria for selecting Sampling procedure
When selecting a sampling procedure, researchers consider several
criteria to ensure that the sample is representative of the population
and that the results are reliable and generalizable. Here are some key
criteria for selecting a sampling procedure
1. Research Objectives
1. Clearly defined objectives: The sampling procedure should align with
the research objectives and questions.
2. Type of data: The sampling procedure should be suitable for the type
of data being collected (e.g., quantitative, qualitative
2. Population Characteristics
1. Population size: The sampling procedure should take into account
the size of the population.
2. Population diversity: The sampling procedure should ensure that the
sample represents the diversity of the population.
3. Population accessibility: The sampling procedure should consider the
accessibility of the population.
3. Sampling Frame
1. Availability: The sampling frame should be available and up-to-date.
2. Accuracy: The sampling frame should accurately represent the
population.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
3. Comprehensiveness: The sampling frame should include all members
of the population.
4. Sample Size
1. Sufficient size: The sample size should be sufficient to achieve the
research objectives.
2. Statistical power: The sample size should provide adequate statistical
power to detect significant effects.
5. Sampling Method
1. Probability or non-probability: The sampling method should be
chosen based on the research objectives and population characteristics.
2. Randomization: The sampling method should involve randomization
to minimize bias.
6. Resource Constraints
1. Time: The sampling procedure should be feasible within the available
time frame.
2. Budget: The sampling procedure should be within the available
budget.
3. Personnel: The sampling procedure should be feasible with the
available personnel.
7. Ethical Considerations
1. Informed consent: The sampling procedure should ensure that
participants provide informed consent.
Page 18 of 21
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
2. Confidentiality: The sampling procedure should ensure the
confidentiality of participant data.
3. Anonymity: The sampling procedure should ensure participant
anonymity when necessary.
By considering these criteria, researchers can select a sampling
procedure that is appropriate for their research study and ensures the
reliability and generalizability of the results.
Census and Sample
A census and a sample are two different approaches to collecting data
from a population.
Census
A census is a comprehensive collection of data from every member of a
population. It involves counting and collecting information from each
individual or unit within the population.
Characteristics of a Census
1. Comprehensive: A census includes every member of the population.
2. Exhaustive: A census collects data from each individual or unit within
the population.
3. Accurate: A census provides accurate data, as it is based on the
entire population.
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Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
Advantages of a Census
1. High accuracy: A census provides accurate data, as it is based on the
entire population.
2. Comprehensive coverage: A census includes every member of the
population.
3. No sampling error: A census eliminates sampling error, as it is based
on the entire population.
Disadvantages of a Census
1. Time-consuming: Conducting a census can be time-consuming,
especially for large populations.
2. Expensive: Conducting a census can be expensive, as it requires
significant resources.
3. Difficult to implement: Conducting a census can be challenging,
especially in areas with limited infrastructure or access.
Sample
A sample is a subset of individuals or units selected from a population.
It involves collecting data from a representative group of individuals or
units within the population.
Characteristics of a Sample
1. Representative: A sample should be representative of the
population.
2. Random: A sample should be selected randomly from the population.
Page 20 of 21
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.)
(A Central University)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENNT
3. Limited: A sample is limited in size, compared to the population.
Advantages of a Sample
1. Time-efficient: Collecting data from a sample is faster than
conducting a census.
2. Cost-effective: Collecting data from a sample is less expensive than
conducting a census.
3. Practical: Collecting data from a sample is often more practical than
conducting a census.
Disadvantages of a Sample
1. Sampling error: A sample may not accurately represent the
population, due to sampling error.
2. Limited generalizability: A sample may not be generalizable to the
entire population.
3. Biased results: A sample may produce biased results, if the sample is
not representative of the population.
In summary, a census provides comprehensive and accurate data, but
can be time-consuming and expensive. A sample provides a
representative subset of data, but may be subject to sampling error and
limited generalizability. The choice between a census and a sample
depends on the research objectives, resources, and population
characteristics.
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