Unit I – Solar Energy
Topic 1: Role and Potential of New and Renewable Energy Sources
✅What are Renewable Energy Sources?
Renewable energy sources are those that are naturally replenished on a human
timescale. These include:
Solar energy (from sunlight)
Wind energy
Hydropower (from flowing water)
Geothermal energy (from Earth’s heat)
Biomass (organic matter)
Why Do We Need Renewables?
Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, gas) are limited, and their combustion emits
greenhouse gases (GHGs) like CO₂ → global warming.
Energy insecurity: Oil-importing countries (like India) face fuel price
volatility and geopolitical dependence.
India's Renewable Energy Scenario
India has immense solar potential—300+ sunny days per year
Renewable Installed Capacity (as of 2025):
o Solar: 110+ GW
o Wind: ~45 GW
o Target: 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030
Environmental Benefits
No emissions during operation
Minimal land and water use compared to coal
Long-term sustainability
Topic 2: The Solar Energy Option
Definition
Solar energy is the energy radiated from the sun, harnessed using thermal or
photovoltaic means.
Modes of Solar Energy Utilization
Mode Description Examples
Solar water heater,
Solar Thermal Uses sunlight to heat a fluid or surface
cooker
Converts sunlight directly to electricity using Solar panels, off-grid
Solar PV
semiconductors lighting
Solar Solar thermal power
Concentrates heat to run turbines
Mechanical plants
Topic 3: Environmental Impact of Solar Power
✅Positive Aspects
No GHG emissions during use
Silent operation
Reduced urban pollution (no SO₂, NOx, etc.)
Supports rural electrification (off-grid)
⚠️ Limited Negative Aspects
PV modules use chemicals (cadmium, lead—need safe disposal)
Land requirement: large-scale solar parks can disturb ecosystems (solved by
rooftop or floating solar)
Water for panel cleaning (but way less than coal/water plants)
Topic 4: Physics of the Sun
How Does the Sun Produce Energy?
The Sun generates energy through nuclear fusion in its core:
4 \, ^1H \rightarrow \, ^4He + 26.7 \, \text{MeV}
describes the nuclear fusion process that powers the Sun and other stars. Let’s break it down
step by step:
☀️ What's Happening Here?
1H^1H represents a single proton (a hydrogen nucleus).
4He^4He is the nucleus of helium with 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
MeV means Mega-electron Volts, a unit of energy (1 MeV = 1.6 × 10⁻¹³ Joules).
So, four hydrogen nuclei are combining to form one helium nucleus, releasing energy.
⚠️ Why Does This Release Energy?
The mass of four hydrogen nuclei is slightly more than the mass of one helium
nucleus.
That "missing" mass is converted into energy based on Einstein’s famous equation:
E=mc2E = mc^2
The difference in mass turns into 26.7 MeV of energy per reaction.
⚠️ Where and How Does It Happen?
This reaction occurs in the core of the Sun, where:
o Temperatures exceed 15 million °C
o Pressure is immense
o Protons overcome their natural repulsion (Coulomb barrier)
This fusion is part of the proton-proton (p–p) chain reaction, which is the dominant fusion
cycle in stars like our Sun.
⚠️ Why Is It Important?
This is the source of all solar energy—light, heat, and life on Earth.
The energy travels as sunlight (visible, infrared, UV).
Fusion is cleaner and more powerful than any reaction on Earth—scientists are working
to replicate this in fusion power reactors.
This energy is radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Energy Flow from the Sun:
1. Core: Fusion reactions
2. Radiative Zone: Energy transported via photons
3. Convective Zone: Heat rises to surface
4. Photosphere: Releases radiation into space
⚡ Sunlight Spectrum:
Region Wavelength Range % in Solar Radiation
UV 0.1–0.4 µm ~5%
Visible 0.4–0.7 µm ~45%
IR 0.7–4.0 µm ~50%
Topic 5: Solar Constant
The Solar Constant (G_sc) is the amount of solar energy received per unit
area on a plane normal to the sun's rays, outside Earth’s atmosphere.
Gsc≈1367 W/m2G_{sc} \approx 1367 \, \text{W/m}^2
🧠 But due to seasonal and orbital variations, the value is often adjusted:
Gon=Gsc(1+0.033cos(360n365))G_{on} = G_{sc} \left(1 + 0.033
\cos\left(\frac{360n}{365}\right)\right)
Where nn = day of year (n = 1 for Jan 1)
Topic 6: Extra-Terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiation
⚠️ What’s the difference?
Extra-Terrestrial Radiation (H₀): Solar energy outside Earth's atmosphere;
clean and unfiltered.
Terrestrial Radiation (H): Solar energy reaching Earth’s surface after
atmospheric absorption and scattering.
Energy Loss in Atmosphere:
Absorption by gases: O₃, CO₂, H₂O vapor
Scattering: Dust, clouds, aerosols
Reflection: From clouds and Earth’s surface
Formula to estimate daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface:
H0=24⋅3600⋅Iscπ⋅(1+0.033cos(360n365))⋅[cos(ϕ)cos(δ)sin(ωs
)+πωs180sin(ϕ)sin(δ)]H_0 = \frac{24 \cdot 3600 \cdot I_{sc}}{\pi}
\cdot \left(1 + 0.033 \cos\left(\frac{360n}{365}\right)\right) \cdot
\left[\cos(\phi)\cos(\delta)\sin(\omega_s) + \frac{\pi
\omega_s}{180}\sin(\phi)\sin(\delta)\right]
Where:
IscI_{sc}: Solar constant
ϕ\phi: Latitude
δ\delta: Declination
ωs\omega_s: Sunset hour angle
nn: Day number of the year
Topic 7: Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
Most solar devices are tilted, not flat, to catch more sunlight.
Three components on a tilted surface:
1. Direct radiation (beam) – From sun to surface directly
2. Diffuse radiation – Scattered light from sky
3. Reflected radiation – From ground or other surfaces
Key Angles in Solar Geometry
Parameter Explanation
Latitude (ϕ) Observer’s position (in degrees from equator)
Declination (δ) Angle between solar equator and Earth’s equator
Hour Angle (H) Degrees of sun’s position from noon (15° per hour)
Parameter Explanation
Zenith angle (θₓ) Angle between sunbeam and vertical
Solar altitude (α) Height of sun in the sky = 90° − θₓ
Tilt angle for max radiation = Latitude ± 10°, depending on season
Topic 8: Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation
and Sunshine
Instrument Description
Pyranometer Measures total global radiation (beam + diffuse)
Pyrheliometer Measures only beam radiation (uses collimated lens)
Sunshine Recorder Measures sunshine hours using a burning card technique
Usage:
Determine optimal panel positioning
Predict seasonal output of solar systems
Feed data into simulation models (e.g., PVsyst, RETScreen)
Topic 9: Solar Radiation Data
Why is solar data important?
Design solar systems efficiently
Select sites for power plants
Analyze seasonal performance
Data Formats:
Hourly/Daily radiation (W/m² or kWh/m²/day)
Monthly Averages (per location)
Sunshine hours data
Sources:
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)
NREL, NASA-SSE, ISRO-NICES
Mobile apps: PVGIS, SolarGIS
Topic 10: Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)
Working Principle:
Sunlight strikes black absorber → Absorbs heat → Transfers heat to water/air →
Stored or used
Construction:
Component Function
Absorber plate Black-coated metal (high absorptivity)
Fluid tubes Carry water or antifreeze fluid
Transparent cover Glass reduces heat loss by convection
Insulation Minimizes bottom/side losses
Casing Weatherproof housing
Efficiency Formula:
η=QuA⋅It=mCp(To−Ti)A⋅It\eta = \frac{Q_u}{A \cdot I_t} = \frac{m
C_p (T_o - T_i)}{A \cdot I_t}
Where:
QuQ_u: Useful heat output
AA: Collector area
ItI_t: Solar insolation
mm: Flow rate
CpC_p: Specific heat of fluid
To−TiT_o - T_i: Temp difference
Topic 11: Solar Energy Collection – Concentrating
Collectors
What Are They?
Unlike flat plate collectors (which absorb sunlight over a wide area),
concentrating collectors use mirrors/lenses to focus solar radiation onto a small
receiver. This creates very high temperatures.
Working Principle:
Focused light → High intensity → High heat on a receiver surface
Can heat fluids to 250–1000°C, good for power generation (e.g., turbines)
Where Used?
Solar power plants (thermal CSP)
Solar cookers (parabolic)
Steam generation
Need direct sunlight only (beam radiation), not diffuse light → perform best in
clear-sky regions
Topic 12: Classification of Concentrating Collectors
Temp
Type Focus Tracking Needed Use Case
Range
Parabolic
Line Single-axis 150–400°C Thermal power plants
Trough
Stirling engine, small
Parabolic Dish Point Dual-axis 400–700°C
scale
Temp
Type Focus Tracking Needed Use Case
Range
Fresnel Lens Line Single-axis 100–250°C Compact solar heating
Heliostat + Dual-axis (heliostat 500– Large-scale CSP
Point
Tower mirrors) 1000°C systems
Important Terms:
Concentration Ratio (CR):
CR=Aperture AreaReceiver AreaCR = \frac{\text{Aperture Area}}{\text{Receiver
Area}}
Higher CR = Higher temp.
Aperture = Area collecting sunlight
Receiver = Area where light is focused
Topic 13: Orientation and Thermal Analysis
Orientation of Collectors
North-South Axis alignment (in India) ensures maximum daily exposure
Tilt angle:
o Latitude of location ± seasonal correction
o Example: For 20° latitude, tilt ~20° (fixed) or adjusted monthly
Thermal Analysis: Understanding Efficiency
Let’s define:
Qu=Ac⋅Fr⋅[S−UL(Tin−Ta)]Q_u = A_c \cdot F_r \cdot [ S - U_L (T_{in} - T_a) ]
Where:
QuQ_u: useful heat gain
AcA_c: collector area
FrF_r: heat removal factor
SS: solar radiation absorbed per unit area
ULU_L: overall heat loss coefficient
TinT_{in}: inlet fluid temp
TaT_a: ambient temp
Then:
η=QuAc⋅It\eta = \frac{Q_u}{A_c \cdot I_t}
Where ItI_t = incident solar radiation
Efficiency Factors:
Absorptivity of coating
Type of glazing
Ambient temperature and wind
Flow rate of working fluid
Topic 14: Advanced Collectors
✅1. Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)
Each tube = double-glass cylinder with vacuum gap
Vacuum prevents convection and conduction losses
Higher efficiency in cold/cloudy climates
Up to 200°C output temp
Applications: Hospitals, hotels, solar geysers
✅2. Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)
Non-imaging mirrors focus light onto a receiver
Wider acceptance angle → doesn’t always need sun tracking
Efficiency between flat and parabolic collectors
Used in: Industrial heat, water pasteurization
✅3. Hybrid Collectors (PV/T Systems)
Combine photovoltaic (electric) + thermal (heat) systems
PV cells heat up → reduce efficiency → draw heat away → improve both
electricity + hot water generation
ideal for smart buildings, rooftops, co-generation systems
