Photovoltaic Techniques

16B1NPH633
•Solar Photovoltaics, PHI
C S Solanki, IIT B

•Applied Photovoltaics, Earthscan,

Stuart R. Wenhem, Martin A.
Green, M.E. Watt,

•The Physics of Solar Cells,

Imperial college press, Jenny
Nelson, “ 003.Aatec publications,
1995.

•Solar Cells: Materials,

Manufacture and Operations, Tom
Markvart and Luis Castaner
Elsevier, 2006
Outline
• Energy issues:

• Solar cell fundamentals

• Design of solar cells

• Solar cell technologies

• Photovoltaic system
Outline
• Energy issues:
– conventional energy sources, Renewable energy sources, Solar
Energy

• Solar cell fundamentals

– Fundamental of semiconductor, charge carriers and their
motion in semiconductors, carriers generation and
recombination, p-n junction diode, introduction to solar cell, p-
n junction under illumination, Current-Voltage (I-V), open
circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC) Maximum
power, current and voltage and Efficiency, Quantum Efficiency

• Design of solar cells

– Upper limits of cell parameters, loses in solar cell, solar cell
design, design for high Isc, Voc, FF, solar simulators
Outline
• Solar cell technologies
– Production of Si, Si wafer based solar cell technology, thin film
solar cell technologies (CIGS, microcrystalline and
polycrystalline Si solar cells, amorphous Si thin film solar cells),
multijunction solar cells, Emerging solar cell technologies:
organics solar cells, Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC), GaAs solar
cell

• Photovoltaic system
– PV system : Introduction, Stand alone system, Grid connected
system, Hybrid system, Designing of PV system, Balance of
system- BOS (Inverters, Controllers, Wiring, Batteries)
Photovoltaic Cells, Estimating PV system size and cost,
Photovoltaic safety.
 Course Out comes:
S. No. DESCRIPTION COGNITIVE
LEVEL
C302- Classify various types of renewable energy C2
8.1 sources and explain working of
photovoltaic device.
C302- Demonstrate the use of basic principles to C2
8.2 model photovoltaic devices.
C302- Identify challenges and apply strategies to C3
8.3 optimize performance of various type of
solar cells
C302- Analyze the Solar PV module, mismatch C4
8.4 parameter and rating of PV module
C302- Evaluate the performance of various C5
8.5 stand-alone PV systems with battery and
AC and DC load
Energy issues:
•How much energy ???
•Energy reserve.....
•conventional energy sources,
•Limitations/Problems
•Renewable energy sources,
•Solar Energy
Energy:
 Energy Reserves:

Coal+oil&gas
4.7×1022 J
90 years

1 David MacKay “Sustainable Energy – without the hot air” www.withouthotair.com

Energy Reserves:

Coal+Oil&Gas
4.7×1022 J
94 years

Uranium Ore
2.6×1023 J
520 years
[Fast breeder]
Energy Reserves:

Coal+Oil%Gas
4.7×1022 J
94 years

U 0.0033 ppm

Uranium Ore
2.6×1023 J
520 years

Uranium in Seawater
3.3×1024 J
6600 years
 Energy Reserves:

Coal+Oil%Gas
4.7×1022 J
94 years

Uranium Ore
2.6×1023 J
520 years

Lithium Ore
U 0.0033 ppm
7.9×1022 J
160 years
Uranium in Seawater
3.3×1024 J
6600 years
 Energy Reserves:

Coal+Oil%Gas
4.7×1022 J Lithium Ore
94 years 7.9×1022 J
160 years

Li 0.17 ppm

Uranium Ore
2.6×1023 J
520 years

Lithium in Seawater
U 0.0033 ppm
8.3×1026 J
1.7×106 years
Uranium in Seawater
3.3×1024 J
6600 years
 Energy Reserves:

Coal+Oil%Gas
4.7×1022 J Lithium Ore
94 years 7.9×1022 J
160 years

D 0.035 ppm

Uranium Ore
2.6×1023 J Li 0.17 ppm
520 years

DD Fusion
U 0.0033 ppm 2.4×1030 J Lithium in Seawater
4.8×109 years 8.3×1026 J
1.7×106 years
Uranium in Seawater
3.3×1024 J
6600 years Sizes relative to energy reserves on a log scale
 Energy Reserves:

Coal+Oil%Gas
4.7×1022 J Lithium Ore
94 years 7.9×1022 J
160 years

Uranium Ore
2.6×1023 J Li 0.17 ppm
520 years

The Sun
U 0.0033 ppm 5×109 years Lithium in Seawater
8.3×1026 J
1.7×106 years
Uranium in Seawater
3.3×1024 J
6600 years Sizes relative to energy reserves on a log scale
 1.1.1 Energy Source Categories
Non Renewable
renewable
Conventional

Alternative

080805
 1.1.1 Energy Source Categories
Non Renewable
renewable
Conventional Coal
Oil
Gas
Nuclear
Fission
Alternative

080805
 1.1.2 Energy Source Categories
Non Renewable
renewable
Conventional Coal Wood
Oil Hydro
Gas Human/Animal
Nuclear Wind Water Pumping
Fission
Alternative

080805
 1.1.3 Energy Source Categories
Non Renewable
renewable
Conventional Coal Wood
Oil Hydro
Gas Human/Animal
Nuclear Wind Water Pumping
Fission
Alternative Geothermal
Oil Shale, CTL
Tar Sands
Methane
Hydrates

080805
 1.1.4 Energy Source Categories
Non Renewable
renewable
Conventional Coal Wood
Oil Hydro
Gas Human/Animal
Nuclear Wind Water Pumping
Fission
Alternative Geothermal Wind Solar
Oil Shale, CTL Biomass
Wave/Tide
Tar Sands
Ocean Current
Methane
Hydrates
⚫Sustainable means using less than is renewed; if water is withdrawn from a dam faster than it is
080820 refilled, the level drops and hydro power is lessened, and finally fails
 2010

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/highlight1.html
 Solar Energy…

The Sun

Australia
1.8x1011 MW
solar energy at
earth surface
Solar Energy at earth surface :

▪ Total Energy emitted by Sun…???

▪ Energy received by earth…???
 • total energy density (u): total radiant energy per unit volume for all
wavelength radiating at any point
•total emissive power (E): radiant energy per unit time per unit surface
area of body for all wavelength
 

u =
 u d and E =
 E d
0
0

8 2 h
Planck's radiation law u ( ) d = d
c 3 (e h / kT − 1)
Wien’s displacement law

Stefan-Boltzmann Law. E = e T 4
Assuming sun surface temperature 58000 K and sun
radius Rs=7x108m , total energy radiated by sun and
energy received by earth. Distance b/w sun and
earth is r = 1.5x1011m
Total energy radiation from sun U = AsT4
= 5.67x10-8x4Rs2x(5800)4
=3.95x1026J
At earth atmosphere = U/4r2
= 3.95x1026J /4x(1.5x1011)2
=1400W/m2
 Solar Energy at Earth surface
▪ Incoming sunlight = Iin = 1400 W/m2
▪ solar constant

▪ Albedo = reflected light = 

▪ Not absorbed and re-radiated
as IR
▪ Just ‘bounces’ back
▪Albedo = reflected light = = 30%
▪ 1400 W/m2 (1 - ) = 980 W/m2
▪ Want flux for the whole planet (no m2)
▪ Fin(W) = Iin(W/m2) x Area(m2)
 What area do we use?

▪ Sun shines on half the Earth

▪ Light is weaker/stronger
▪ latitude, dawn/dusk

Solar Constant Day Night

Sunlight hits Earth from same direction, makes a circular shadow, use the
area of a circle, not a sphere.

Earth receives influx of energy equal to the intensity of sunlight multiplied

by the area of a circle = r2earth

Solar Constant Day Night

Area (m2) = r2earth

 Put them together, total incoming flux is:

▪ Fin = r2earth (1 - ) Iin

▪ Iin = 1400 W/m2

▪ Reduce by albedo to 1000 W/m2
▪ Multiply by area of circle to get solar Flux (W)
 Properties of Light

There are several key characteristics of the incident solar energy which are critical in
determining how the incident sunlight interacts with a photovoltaic converter or any
other object. The important characteristics of the incident solar energy are:

➢the spectral content of the incident light;

➢the radiant power density from the sun;

➢the angle at which the incident solar radiation strikes a photovoltaic module;

➢and the radiant energy from the sun throughout a year or day for a particular surface.
 Air Mass
The Air Mass is the path length which light takes through the atmosphere normalized
to the shortest possible path length (that is, when the sun is directly overhead). The Air
Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light as it passes through the
atmosphere and is absorbed by air and dust. The Air Mass is defined as:

1 optical path length to sun

AM = =
cos  optical path length if sun directly overhead

The air mass represents the proportion of atmosphere that the light must pass through
before striking the Earth relative to its overhead path length, and is equal to Y/X.
 An easy method to determine the air mass is from the shadow of a vertical pole.

Air mass is the length of the hypotenuse divided by the object height h, and from
Pythagoras's theorem we get:

s 2
AM = 1+ ( )
h
Standardised Solar Spectrum and Solar Irradiation
The efficiency of a solar cell is sensitive to variations in both the power and the
spectrum of the incident light.

To facilitate an accurate comparison between solar cells measured at different

times and locations, a standard spectrum and power density has been defined
for both radiation outside the Earth's atmosphere and at the Earth's surface.

The standard spectrum at the Earth's surface is called AM1.5G, (the G stands for
global and includes both direct and diffuse radiation) or AM1.5D (which includes
direct radiation only).

The intensity of AM1.5D radiation can be approximated by reducing the AM0

spectrum by 28% (18% due to absorption and 10% to scattering).

The global spectrum is 10% higher than the direct spectrum. These calculations
give approximately 970 W/m2 for AM1.5G.
However, the standard AM1.5G spectrum has been normalized to give
1kW/m2 due to the convenience of the round number and the fact that there
are inherently variations in incident solar radiation.

The standard spectrum outside the Earth's atmosphere is called AM0, because
at no stage does the light pass through the atmosphere. This spectrum is
typically used to predict the expected performance of cells in space.
 ( System size) x (insolation at site of installation)
Energy output =
AM 1.5G
Here’s the equation to use, when calculating the area of land
needed to produce a certain amount of energy over a year,
given a technology with a certain conversion efficiency.
How much energy (kWh) will be produced
by the solar system over the course of a year.

Energy Burn Rate (kWh / yr )

Land Re quirements (m 2 ) =
kWh
Solar Re source ( 2 ) x Conversion Efficiency
m . yr

How much energy from the sun The ability of a given technology to convert
is available Sun light in a usable form. This is the conversion
efficiency for entire system for just for device.
 Tute:1
Q1. If 1 Kg coal gives 30x106J of energy with 2.3 Kg CO2 emission, how much coal
is required to light a 100 W bulb for a day?
If coal plant is working at 30% efficiency, calculate CO2 emission to the atmosphere?

Q2. A hydro power dam of surface area produces 2x109 W electricity.

7x109 Kg materials used in dam, while each Kg material is needed 1MJ electricity.
(I) How much energy did it take to make dam?
(II) How long is the energy pay back time?
(III) Instead of making dam, if we cover whole area with solar panel having 250 W/m2
sun light with 12% efficiency, What is the energy Pay back time of solar plant if
2x109 J energy is required to make 1 m2 PV panel?
(IV) which one will produce more electricity: Dam or solar Plant?
Q3. If we have a 2.2 KW PV array at 4KWh/m2/day (Insolation), how much energy
it will produce in a year?

Q4. Future project power demand for India is 4 TW and average insolation received
in Bhopal is 6 KWh/m2/day. If we assume system efficiency of 12%,
calculate land requirement for installing a PV park which can fulfill this demand ?