📘 Summary: What Is a Function?
🔹 Functions and Dependency
A function arises when one quantity depends on another.
In all given examples (A–D), one variable depends on another, making it a function.
🔹 Examples of Functions from the Text:
A. Area of a Circle
Area A depends on radius r.
Rule:
A=πr2
So, A is a function of r.
B. World Population
Population P depends on time t.
A table shows estimates at different years.
For each year, there’s one population value → P is a function of t.
C. Mailing Cost
Cost C depends on weight w of the envelope.
No simple formula, but there's a rule used by the post office.
So, C is a function of w.
D. Earthquake Acceleration
Vertical acceleration a depends on time t.
A graph (from the Northridge earthquake) shows values of a at different times.
So, a is a function of t.
🔹 Definition of a Function
A function is a rule that assigns exactly one output to each input.
If f is a function, then:
f :D→E
where:
o D is the domain (input values)
o E is the range (possible outputs)
🔹 Key Terms:
Term Definition
Domain Set of all possible input values (e.g., x,t,r)
Range Set of all possible output values (e.g., f(x),P,A)
Independent Variable A symbol representing a value from the domain
Dependent Variable A symbol representing a value in the range
Example: In A=πr2,
r = independent variable, A= dependent variable
🔹 How to Visualize a Function
1. As a Machine
o Input goes in → Rule is applied → Output comes out
o Example: A calculator’s square root button computes √ x , but only if x≥0
2. Arrow Diagram
o Arrows connect each input to exactly one output
o Shows the mapping clearly
3. Graph
o Set of ordered pairs (x,f(x))
o The x-axis represents the domain
o The y-axis shows the output (range)
o The graph helps visualize the behavior of the function
🔹 Important Note
If an input maps to more than one output, it is not a function.
Every input must have only one corresponding output.
Representations of Functions – Summary
Functions can be represented in four different ways, each offering different insights:
1. Verbally – using words
→ Describing the relationship between input and output in a sentence.
Example: “The population of the world depends on the year.”
2. Numerically – using a table of values
→ Shows specific input-output pairs.
Example: A table showing population at different years.
3. Visually – using a graph
→ Gives a picture of how the function behaves.
Example: A scatter plot of population over time.
4. Algebraically – using a formula
→ A rule written as an equation.
Example: A = πr² for the area of a circle.
🧠 Important Notes:
Not all functions can be expressed easily in all four ways.
Often, we switch between representations to understand the function better.
Sometimes, a model (approximate formula) is used when an exact one is not available.
💡Examples Recap:
A. Area of a circle: Best represented algebraically (A = πr²).
B. World population: Start with a verbal description, then a table, graph, and model
formula.
C. Mailing cost: Best shown with a table; can also be graphed.
D. Earthquake data: Best represented visually (graph of acceleration over time).
Vertical Line Test: Definition
A graph represents a function if and only if no vertical line intersects the graph more than
once.
Why this works:
A function assigns exactly one output f(x) for each input x.
A vertical line x=a crosses all points with the same input a
If the line crosses the graph more than once, that means there are multiple y-values for
the same x-value — which violates the definition of a function.
Example: A Circle
A circle fails the vertical line test.
Equation of a circle:
x^2 + y^2 = 1
This is not a function, because for a given x (e.g., x=0.5), there are two corresponding y-
values (one above and one below the x-axis).
Vertical lines intersect the circle twice — once on the upper half and once on the lower
half.
Breaking a Circle Into Functions
You can define the upper and lower halves of a circle as separate functions:
Upper semicircle:
f ( x )= √ 1−x2
Passes the vertical line test
Domain: −1≤x≤1
Range: 0≤y≤1
Lower semicircle:
g ( x )=−√ 1−x 2
Also passes the vertical line test
Same domain, but range: −1 ≤ y ≤ 0
These are shown in Figures 1.7b and 1.7c of your book, illustrating how parts of a non-function
graph (like a full circle) can still be valid functions if isolated.
🔼 Increasing Functions
A function f is increasing on an interval I if:
f(x2)>f(x1) whenever x1<x2 and both x1,x2∈I
This means:
As you move from left to right, the graph rises.
Visually: The curve goes uphill as you scan from left to right.
🔽 Decreasing Functions
A function f is decreasing on an interval I if:
f(x2)<f(x1)whenever x1<x2 and both x1,x2∈I
This means:
As you move from left to right, the graph falls.
Visually: The curve goes downhill from left to right.
⚠️Key Details
These definitions are for strictly increasing or strictly decreasing functions (note the >
or <).
If the inequality uses ≥ or ≤ then the function is non-decreasing or non-increasing.
These comparisons must be true for every pair (x1,x2) in the interval I.
Summary of Common Functions in Calculus
1. Linear Functions
o Form: f(x) = mx + b, where m and b are constants.
o The graph is a straight line.
o If b = 0, it passes through the origin.
o The identity function is f(x) = x.
o A constant function has m = 0.
o If y = kx, where k ≠ 0, then y and x are proportional.
o If y = k(1/x), then y is inversely proportional to x.
2. Power Functions
o Form: f(x) = x^a, where a is constant.
o a = n (positive integer):
Even powers are symmetric about the y-axis.
Odd powers are symmetric about the origin.
o a = -1 or -2:
f(x) = 1/x or 1/x².
Not defined at x = 0.
Show hyperbolic behavior
o a = 1/2, 1/3, 3/2, 2/3:
Square root and cube root functions.
√x is defined for x ≥ 0.
Cube root is defined for all real x.
3. Polynomials
o Form: p(x) = aₙxⁿ + ... + a₁x + a₀.
o Domain: all real numbers (−∞, ∞).
o Degree = highest power of x (if aₙ ≠ 0).
o Examples:
Degree 1: Linear functions.
Degree 2: Quadratic (e.g., ax² + bx + c).
Degree 3: Cubic (e.g., ax³ + bx² + cx + d).
4. Rational Functions
o Form: f(x) = p(x) / q(x), where both p and q are polynomials.
o Domain excludes values where q(x) = 0.
5. Algebraic Functions
o Constructed from polynomials using operations: +, −, ×, ÷, and roots.
o Includes all rational functions and more complex ones (e.g., y³ − 9xy + x³ = 0).
6. Trigonometric Functions
o Includes sine, cosine, tangent, etc.
o Periodic and important in modeling wave-like behavior.
7. Exponential Functions
o Form: f(x) = a^x, where a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
o Domain: (−∞, ∞)
o Range: (0, ∞)
o Never equals zero. Rapid growth or decay.
8. Logarithmic Functions
o Form: f(x) = logₐ(x), inverse of exponential functions.
o Domain: (0, ∞)
o Range: (−∞, ∞)
9. Transcendental Functions
o Not algebraic. Includes:
Trigonometric
Inverse trigonometric
Exponential
Logarithmic
Others, like the catenary (describes the shape of a hanging cable).
Operations on Functions
Just like numbers, functions can be combined using basic arithmetic operations—addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division—to create new functions.
(i.e., x ∈ D(ƒ) ∩ D(g)), we define:
Let ƒ(x) and g(x) be two functions. For every value of x that is in the domains of both ƒ and g
1. Sum of Functions
(ƒ+g)(x)=ƒ(x)+g(x)
2. Difference of Functions
(ƒ−g)(x)=ƒ(x)−g(x)
3. Product of Functions
(ƒg)(x)=ƒ(x)⋅g(x)
4. Quotient of Functions
()
ƒ
g
( x )=
ƒ(x)
g(x)
o Defined only when g(x) ≠ 0
5. Multiplying a Function by a Constant
(cƒ)(x)=c⋅ƒ(x)
o Where c is a real constant, and the domain stays the same as the domain of ƒ.
Composite Functions
If ƒ and g are functions, the composite function is written as:
(ƒ∘g)(x)=ƒ(g(x))
o This means you apply g first, then apply ƒ to the result.
The domain of ƒ ∘ g includes all x such that:
Domain of the composite function:
o x is in the domain of g, and
o g(x) is in the domain of ƒ
Even and Odd Functions
Definitions:
A function f(x) is even if:
f(−x)=f(x)
A function f(x) is odd if:
f(−x)=−f(x)
These conditions must hold for every x in the
domain of the function.
Graphical Symmetry:
Even functions are symmetric about the y-axis.
o If (x, y) is on the graph, then (-x, y) is
also on the graph.
o Example: f(x) = x², f(x) = x⁴
Odd functions are symmetric about the origin.
o If (x, y) is on the graph, then (-x, -y) is
also on the graph.
o This means rotating the graph 180°
around the origin leaves it unchanged.
o Example: f(x) = x, f(x) = x³
Note:
Both x and –x must be in the domain for the
function to be even or odd.
Shifting a Graph of a Function
📈 1. Vertical Shifts
These happen when you add or subtract a constant to the output (i.e., the whole function):
y=f(x)+k
Effects:
If k<0: Shift down ∣k∣ units
If k>0: Shift up k units
📉 2. Horizontal Shifts
These happen when you add or subtract a constant inside the
input:
y=f(x+h)
Effects:
If h<0: Shift right ∣h∣ units
If h>0 : Shift left h units
