1.

Basic Principles

The density of any given substance is its mass per unit volume.

Relative Density (RD) of a substance is simply a ratio of the density of the substance in question
to that of Fresh Water.

A ship is presumed to always float in water that

lies in the following density range:

Water that lies between these two extremes is

termed Dock Water (DW).
The Laws of flotation:
 Archimedes Principle

 The law of Flotation.

The volume of displacement is the underwater volume of a ship afloat, i.e. the volume
below the waterline.
Displacement is a mass of water displaced by the floating vessel. Therefore, displacement is
equal to the TOTAL weight of the vessel. (Displacement = Deadweight + Lightweight)
To calculate the displacement (W) of a ship, the following need to be known
 The volume of displacement (V)
 The density of the water in which it floats (P)

Deadweight is the actual amount of weight in tonnes that a vessel can carry when loaded to the
maximum permissible draught (includes fuel, fresh water, gear supplies, catch and crew)

Lightweight is the displacement of vessel without cargo, fuel, lube oil, consumable stores, crew
and their effects.
GRT – Total volume of the vessel including
accommodation, cargo spaces, enclosed spaces
above the deck.

NRT – Total volume of spaces used for

carriage of cargo. It can be found in
International Tonnage Certificate.

1 register tonnage = 100 cubic feet = 2,83 3

m

Draught and Freeboard

Draught is the distance from the keel to the waterline as measured at the forward and
aft ends of the ship. It is expressed in metres. If the draughts forward and aft are the same,
the ship is said to be on an even keel.
Freeboard is the distance between the waterline and the top of the uppermost continuous
deck. It is expressed in millimetres and is measured amidships.

Reserve Buoyancy
This is the volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline, which can be equal, but not less
than the volume of the biggest compartment on board the vessel. Because reserve buoyancy
is a very important factor in determining a ship’s seaworthiness, minimum freeboards
are assigned to a ship to ensure that there is adequate reserve buoyancy at all times.

Simple Box-Shaped Vessel Calculations

TPC IMMERSION
The TPC for any given draught is the weight which must be loaded or discharged to change the
ships mean draught by one centimetre.

WPA – The area of a hull at a particular horizontal plane, i.e. within the waterline.

[Link] Lines
Plimsoll line or the Plimsoll mark – indicates the limit until which ships can be loaded with
cargo. It generally varies from one vessel to another. Seafarers should be wary of the fact that
the water level should not rise above the line markers.

 Each load line indicates the minimum freeboard that applies to the seasonal zone and/or
area, as indicated in the International Convention on Load Lines.
 The ship will be loaded to the appropriate load line when the waterline is level with the
top edge of the mark concerned.
 The assigned (Summer) freeboard is measured from the top edge of the Plimsoll line to
the top edge of the deck line.
 The WNA load line mark is only assigned to ships that are 100 meters or less in length.
Ships over 100m will load to the 'W' mark as appropriate.
Fresh Water Allowance (FWA)

Fresh Water Allowance (FWA) of a ship is the number of millimeters by which the mean draught
changes when a ship passes from salt water to fresh water, or vice versa, when the ship is loaded
to the summer displacement.

The FWA is found by the formula:

 [Link] Stability
Transverse Stability is the vessel’s ability to return to the upright position after being heeled by
any external forces

Centers of Buoyancy and Gravity

 BUOYANCY is the ability of something to float in the water or any other fluid.
 Centre of Buoyancy is a point on the vessel through which all forces of buoyancy act
vertically upwards equal to the water displaced.
 Centre of Gravity is a point on the vessel through which all forces of gravity act vertically
downwards.

Fig. 3.1 shows a transverse section through a

vessel.
 WL represents the waterline at which the
ship is floating.
 K is the keel.
 B is the position of the transverse centre of
buoyancy usually just called the centre of
buoyancy. This is the centre of the
underwater volume of the vessel. It is the
point through which the force of buoyancy
supporting the vessel acts vertically
upwards.
 G is the position of the transverse centre of
gravity. It is the point through which all of
the weight of the vessel, including deadweight items, can be considered to act vertically
downwards.
When the vessel is upright, both the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity are on the centre
line of the vessel.

Movement of Centre of Buoyancy

The centre of buoyancy is the centre of the underwater volume of the vessel. As the vessel sinks
deeper in the water, the centre of buoyancy will rise higher.

When the vessel is floating at waterline W1L1, the centre

of buoyancy is at B1. If the ship sinks to waterline W2L2
then the centre of buoyancy will rise to B2, still on the
centre line.

KB  VCB (Vertical Centre of Buoyancy) = 0.53 x

Draft
 Figure 3.2

Movement Of Centre Of Gravity

* Light displacement – A measurement in cubic tons that is equivalent to the quantity of
water displaced by the vessel when she is unladen.

The centre of gravity of the vessel at light displacement is fixed by the arrangement of hull,
superstructure, machinery, etc. The addition of deadweight items such as fuel, cargo, etc. causes
the centre of gravity to move in various directions. Therefore, the position of the centre of gravity is
dependent upon the size of weights added to the vessel, and the position in which they are added.
In other words, the final position of the centre of gravity depends on the practices of the vessel
operator.

The following three rules describe the movement of the centre of gravity of the vessel.

(1) The centre of gravity moves towards an added weight.

Figure 3.3 - Weight Added

(2) The centre of gravity moves away from a discharged weight.

Figure 3.4 Weight Removed

(3) The centre of gravity moves parallel to the movement of a weight, which is already on

board.

Figure 3.5 Shifting Weights

The size of the movement of the centre of gravity is directly dependent upon:

(1) The size of the weight involved;

(2) The distance between the centre of gravity of the vessel and the centre of gravity of the
weight.
(3) The displacement of the vessel.

For calculation purposes the movement of G to G1 is considered to have two components:

 ¿V  a vertical component

 ¿ H  a horizontal component.

w Xd
The vertical component of the shift of G is calculated by the formula: ¿V =
W ±w

Where:

 W  is the weight loaded/discharged

 d  is the vertical distance between G of the ship and g of the loaded/discharged weight.

 W  is the ship's initial displacement.

wXd
If the weight is just shifted within the vessel, we are using only W. (¿V = )
W

w Xd
The horizontal component of the shift of G is calculated by the formula: ¿ H =
W ±w

Where:

 W  is the weight loaded/discharged

 d  is the horizontal distance between G of the ship and g of the loaded/discharged weight.

 W  is the ship's initial displacement.

wXd
If the weight is just shifted within the vessel, we are using only W. (¿ H = )
W

Multiple Weight Problems

It would be very tedious to carry out a calculation for every single weight that was either
shifted, loaded or discharged from the ship. In practice, moments about the keel are taken
to determine the final KG of the ship, where: Moments (t-m) = Weight(t) x Distance(m)
If the ship is considered: Moments (t-m) = Displacement (t) x KG (m).

Moments(t−m)
Therefore: KG =
Displacement (t)
 When a number of weights are shifted, loaded or discharged, the moments for each weight
are calculated. This are added and divided by the final displacement of the ship to give the
final KG.

Metacentre – a point on the centre line of a vessel through which all the forces of buoyancy pass
when the vessel is heeled
Metacentric height – the distance from the Centre of Gravity to the Metacentre (G.M.)
GM = KM – KG = BM + KB – KG
Metacentric Radius – the distance from the Centre of Gravity of the forces of buoyancy to the
Metacentre (B.M.)
Height to the Metacentre – the distance from the Keel to the Metacentre (K.M.)

Suspended Weights
When a weight is suspended from a boom, the effect is as though the weight were situated at the
point of suspension, that is, the head of the boom. Usually, this is a long way from the centre of
gravity of a vessel and therefore, a suspended weight may cause a large movement of the centre
of gravity.

Figure 3.6 Suspended Weight

Heel
Previous diagrams showed a transverse view of a vessel in an upright position, with the centre of
gravity and the centre of buoyancy on the centre line. It was said that all of the weight of the
vessel, and any associated deadweight items, can be assumed to act vertically downwards
through the centre of gravity. It was also said that all of the
buoyancy effect can be assumed to act vertically upwards
through the centre of buoyancy; and, of course, when a vessel
is floating the weight is exactly equal to the buoyancy.

When the vessel is moved away from the upright by some

effect outside the vessel, e.g. a wave, the vessel is said to be
heeled.

In Fig 3.7 the vessel has moved to an angle of heel as shown.

The vessel was originally floating at waterline WL, and after

heeling is floating at waterline W1L1.
Wedge 1 has come out of the water, wedge 2 which is of equal
volume, has gone into the water. Figure 3.7 Vessel heeled

The centre of buoyancy (B) is the centre of the underwater volume of the vessel. Because the
underwater shape has changed, the centre of buoyancy moves to the centre of the new
underwater shape, which is at B1.
Buoyancy acts vertically upwards through the centre of buoyancy as shown and cuts the centre
line of the vessel at a point called the metacentre (M). The initial position of the metacentre is
determined by the shape of the underwater portion of the hull (displacement and weight added)

Position of G has not changed, because no weights have been moved, but weight still acts
vertically downwards, through G as shown.

The distance from G to M is called the metacentric height. It is aim of the officer in charge of
loading of the ship to ensure that the initial metacentric height is not less than 0.15m. It is essential
that the ship has suitable GM. As a guide the GM should be in the region of 4 to 8 % of the ship’s
breadth. For a ship with a breadth of 16m this would mean a GM of between approximately 0.6 to
1.3m.

The lines of action of weight and buoyancy are separated by a distance GZ,
which is called the righting lever

Righting lever (GZ) is the horizontal distance, measured in metres, between the
centre of gravity (G) and the vertical line of action of the buoyancy force (Bf)
acting through the centre of buoyancy (B) when the ship is heeled. Generally, the
lower the center of gravity the larger the GZ will be.

Imagine that GZ was a solid lever fixed in the

centre of the ship. The whole weight of the ship
pushes down through G. The force of buoyancy
(which is equal to the weight) pushes upwards
through Z.
GZ experiences a force (turning moment) tending to rotate it in its direction. This turning moment
has the effect of rotating the whole ship in its direction. (The lever is fixed remember). This rotation
would return the ship to the upright position. As that happened, B would once again be vertically
under G, and the righting lever would disappear, since a righting lever only exists when B is not
directly under the G.

Equilibrium
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM – This is when the vessel has a positive righting lever (G below M)

NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM – This is when the vessel has no righting lever (G and M coincide) –
Danger of capsize

UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM – This is when the vessel has a negative righting lever (G above M) –
Capsizing Lever

STABILITY – This is an act of keeping the vessel stable. This word means, if the vessel is heeled
by an external force it has the ability to right herself whether its statical, transverse or longitudinal
stability.

DYNAMIC STABILITY – the amount of work taken to bring the vessel back to its upright position

Equilibrium is the term used to describe a vessel that is afloat. It is a word made up of two words
namely equal and balance. A vessel will float when the forces of weight and buoyancy are equal,
and they balance - that is both B and G are in the same vertical line, and the vessel is not being
acted on by an external force (a force other than buoyancy or weight)

Stable Equilibrium

A vessel which will tend to return to the upright after being heeled by an external force, is said to
be in stable equilibrium. When G is below M (GM is positive value) the vessel is in stable
equilibrium (so that the ship will have positive stability) e.g. the situation shown in Fig 3.7.

Unstable Equilibrium
If G is above M as shown in Fig 3.9 the ship is said to be in unstable
equilibrium. It will not remain upright. It will heel to an angle called an
angle of loll. At that angle of loll it will have ‘picked up’ stability and will
 return to the angle of loll if disturbed by an external force. If G is sufficiently far above M, then the
angle of loll may be very large and the vessel may capsize.

Angle of loll (угол крена при качке) is a large angle of heel, since the line of action of the
buoyancy force is no longer passing through the initial transverse metacentre.
Figure 3.9

Neutral Equilibrium
If G and M coincide, as shown in Fig 3.10 then, theoretically the vessel
will have no reason to remain upright. Also, if it is heeled, it will have no
tendency either to heel further or to return to the upright.

Figure 3.10

MEAN DRAFT – This is the forward and aft draft added together and divided by the number 2

RESERVE BUOYANCY – This is the volume of air trapped in a watertight space above the waterline.
(This is the volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline.)

CENTRE OF FLOTATION – This is the centre of the water-plane area of a vessel at any draught

MOMENT OF STATICAL STABILITY – The total weight (displacement) X the righting lever (GZ).
The righting moment at any angle of heel represents the instantaneous value of the ship’s ability
to return to the upright expressed in tonnes-metres, when the ship is in still water conditions.

A MOMENT = weight x distance

List

When a vessel is floating upright

the centre of gravity and the
centre of buoyancy are on the
centre line. The buoyancy and
weight are then equal in size and
are acting along the same straight
line but in opposite directions.
See Fig 3.11.
 Figure 3.11 No List

If weights are loaded or discharged or moved within the vessel G may move off the centre line.

Figure 3.12 G Located Off Centre Line

The buoyancy and weight are not acting along the

same straight line now, as shown in Fig 3.12. The
vessel will take up an angle of list as shown in Fig
3.13.

As the vessel lists B will move until it is vertically

below G at B1. Then buoyancy and weight will be
acting along the same straight line and the vessel will
come to rest at an angle of list. An angle of list may
be removed by moving weights so that G moves back
onto the centre line.

Figure 3.13 Vessel Listed

 wXd wXd
If the weight is just shifted within the vessel, we are using only W. (¿V = and ¿ H = )
W W
 FREE SUFACE EFFECT
FREE SUFACE EFFECT – Free surface effect is the change in stability of a vessel caused by
liquids moving freely in a tank. Because of this effect, the centre of gravity of the ship moves away
from the centreline, which reduces the righting lever ‘GZ’ & the height of the metacentre, which
further increases the angle of heel. When a tank is partially filled, the liquid’s centre of gravity
position will change as the ship is inclined. Liquid in partially filled tank always decreases the initial
metacentric height GM, righting lever GZ, and angle of vanishing stability. A partially filled tank is
known as a “slack tank”. The reduction of stability caused by the liquids in slack tanks is known as
free-surface or SLOSHING effect.
THE ANGLE OF VANISHING STABILITY is the limit of positive stability of the ship. It is an angle
at which the righting lever returns to zero. So that any heel beyond this angle would result in
condition of negative stability. The distance between 0 an angle of vanishing stability (AVS) is
known as range of stability of the ship.
 STIFF AND TENDER VESSELS

Stable condition is the only condition in which any vessel should

be operated. The bigger is the righting lever of the vessel, the
more stability it will have. The size of the righting lever is
dependent upon the position of G. The size of GM and GZ are
also related. The bigger the GM the bigger the GZ.

If a vessel has a lot of stability i.e. if it has a big GZ and GM then

it will tend to roll quickly, and perhaps uncomfortably, it is said to
be 'stiff'

If a vessel has a small measure of stability, i.e. if it has a small

GZ and GM then it will roll slowly and easily, it is said to be
tender.

Figure 3.15
GZ is determined by position of G

ROLL PERIOD
All vessels have a natural roll period. When heeled by a wave, they will begin rolling. It is like a
pendulum set in motion - the period of roll remains the same, even if the angle to which the vessel
rolls changes. The period of the roll is governed by two factors.

 the GM
 the beam of the vessel

If the GM is large, the roll period is short. If the GM is small, the roll period is long.

A vessel’s roll period is a good indicator of stability. The roll period may be measured at sea, or in
port by rolling the vessel artificially. On a small vessel you can conduct your own rolling test to
obtain GM. To conduct such a test, the boat should be alongside, in smooth water, with no wind or
tide, with slack moorings and adequate side and bottom clearance. All loose weights should be
secured and all slack tanks pressed up. A roll is initiated, perhaps by pulling on a masthead line
from the wharf, and when the vessel is rolling freely, several rolls are timed, and averaged.

An approximate value for the GM in metres may then be found from the formula:

2
 0.88B 
GM   
 T 

where:

 B is the beam of the vessel in metres

 T is the time for one complete roll (port, starboard, port) in seconds.

Thus, roll period is a sensitive indicator of stability. You should always be aware of it. If the roll
period seems longer, or the roll sluggish (очень замедленный), investigate the stability
immediately.
 WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
The distribution of deadweight items within a vessel is the responsibility of the operator. It is
normal for vessels to be stable and upright in their lightship condition. Therefore, if a vessel is
unstable or listed, after the addition of deadweight items, it can be corrected by the action of the
operator.

Remember

(1) G moves towards a loaded weight.

(2) G moves away from a discharged weight.
(3) G moves parallel to a shifted weight.
(4) A suspended weight acts as though it is located at the point of suspension.

Also

(1) Stability improves if G is lowered.

(2) Stability gets worse if G is lifted.
(3) Free surface effect makes stability worse.

Therefore, stability is improved if

(1) Weights already on board are lowered.

(2) Weights are added low down.
(3) High weights are removed.
(4) Suspended weights are lowered.
(5) Tanks are kept completely full or completely empty.

Stability is worsened if

(1) Weights already on board are lifted higher.

(2) Weights are added high up in the vessel.
(3) Weights are removed from low down in the vessel.
(4) Weights are lifted on booms etc.
(5) Many tanks have free surfaces.

Calculating Loading and Unloading of weights:

The amount that the centre of gravity of a vessel is shifted by the loading of a weight can be
calculated by the formula:

Distance from VCG x weight added = Change in metres of

Weight of vessel + weight added Vertical Centre of Gravity

The amount that the centre of gravity of a vessel is shifted by the unloading of a weight can be
calculated by the formula:

Distance from VCG x weight added = Change in metres of

Weight of vessel - weight added Vertical Centre of Gravity
 [Link] Stability
Parameters such as centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy have been used in describing
transverse stability, so far. They can also be used to describe longitudinal stability.

LCB and LCG

In Fig 3.16 LCB is the longitudinal centre of

buoyancy. This is the longitudinal centre of the
underwater volume, and is the point through which
all the buoyancy can be said to act vertically
upwards.

LCG is the longitudinal centre of gravity. This is the

point through which all of the weight of the vessel
can be said to act vertically downwards.

Figure 3.16 LCB Forward of LCG

Vessel trims by the stern

If the position of LCG and LCB are as shown in Fig 3.16 then the actions of buoyancy and weight
will cause the vessel to rotate as shown by the arrow. The stern will sink deeper, the bow will rise
higher. LCB is the longitudinal centre of all underwater volume. As the vessel rotates, the shape of
the underwater volume will change and LCB will move to the new centre.

When LCG and LCB are in the same vertical

line, the rotation will stop, the vessel will be
trimmed by the stern as shown in Fig 3.17.

Figure 3.17 LCG and LCB in same vertical line

no trimming moment

If the vessel had started with LCB aft of LCG as

shown in Fig 3.18 then the rotation would cause a trim
by the bow.

Figure 3.18 LCB aft of LCG - vessel trims by the head

 LCF
Vessels are not generally symmetrical fore and aft,
therefore a vessel does not necessarily rotate about
amidships when it trims. In fact, it rotates about a point
called the longitudinal centre of flotation (LCF).

LCF is the centre of the shape of the waterline at which

the vessel is floating. See Fig 3.19.
This is at the geometric centre of the ships water-plane
area and is the point about which the ship will trim.
Figure 3.19

It can be seen that the LCF is in the

same position in the ships length as
the point where the initial and final
waterlines intersect.

Calculating Loading and Unloading of weights:

The amount that the centre of gravity of a vessel is shifted by the loading of a weight can be
calculated by the formula:

Distance from LCG x weight added = Change in metres of

Weight of vessel + weight added Long. Centre of Gravity

The amount that the centre of gravity of a vessel is shifted by the unloading of a weight can be
calculated by the formula:

Distance from LCG x weight added = Change in metres of

Weight of vessel - weight added Long. Centre of Gravity
wXd
If the weight is just shifted within the vessel, we are using only W ( ¿1 = )
W

Forward Perpendicular (FP)

This is the vertical line of reference that intersects the Summer load waterline at the forward edge
of the stem, the ship being on an even keel.
After Perpendicular (AP)
This is the vertical line of reference that coincides with the after edge of the stern post or, if no
stern post, the turning axis of the rudder.
Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)
This is the horizontal distance between the forward and after perpendiculars. It is this length that is
considered when conducting trim calculations.
Length Overall (LOA)
This is the horizontal distance
between the after most part of the
ship and the forward most part of the
ship.
Amidships
This is the midpoint between
perpendiculars. It is not the midpoint
in the length of the ship.
 Trim
Trim is the difference between the draughts forward and aft, as measured at the forward and aft
perpendiculars. When the forward and aft draughts are the same, the ship is said to be on an even
keel.

A trim by the head should be avoided for the following reasons:

 The rudder may not be fully immersed, making the ship difficult to steer
 reduced propeller immersion will lessen propulsion efficiency
 if the ship is pitching, particularly in a lightship condition, the propeller will tend to race. This,
along with increased vibration, may cause tail shaft damage
 rudder efficiency will be intermittent as the ship pitches
 ballast suctions are sited at the after end of tanks and so a head trim will
make these impossible to empty completely.

Excessive trim by the stern should also be avoided because:

 The large wind area forward and too deep immersion of the aft end will
make the ship difficult to steer
 pitching may be excessive in heavy weather, causing excessive panting and pounding (this
will be evident regardless of trim if the forward draught is too small)
 a large blind area will exist forward, particularly with an aft bridge, hindering pilotage and
reducing lookout effectiveness.

COT (Change of Trim) – the difference in the draft of a ship's bow and stern before and after a
weight shift. In other words, when cargo is loaded or unloaded from a ship, or fuel is consumed,
the weight distribution of the ship changes, and the angle that the ship sits in the water can also
change. This change in angle is called the change of trim.

w Xd Trimming moments a
COT = MCTC = MCTC
COT = T a +T f Ta =
LBP
x COT

MCTC (Moment to Change Trim by One Centimeter) – This is the trimming moment re9uired to
change the ships trim by exactly 1 cm. It is tabulated in the ship's hydrostatic particulars and is
used to determine the change of trim that takes place when weights are shifted, loaded or
discharged.

W X GM L
MCTC = where:
100 LBP

 W  is the ships displacement

 GM L  is the longitudinal metacentric height.
 LBP  is the length between perpendiculars.

When loading or discharging weights, the effect of bodily sinkage or rise must be taken into
account.

w
Sinkage/Rise (cm) = TPC
 [Link] stresses
Ships experience stresses from a variety of forces and their structure needs to be built strongly
and supported properly to handle different loads at any given time. The cost and weight in the
construction of a ship must be balanced against strength, rigidity, sea worthiness and cargo
capacity.

The structure of a ship is subject to two basic types of force, namely Static and Dynamic forces.

A. Static forces: Two forces that act on the vessel when they are in still water as well as when
in motion. They are the force of gravity acting downwards (due to weight of ship and its
cargo) and the force of buoyancy acting upwards (due to upward thrust of water). When
they are in equilibirium, vessel is said to be at rest.
B. Dynamic forces: These forces act on the ship while ship is in motion. While underway,
Vessel is also subjected to six degree of motion namely: Rolling, pitching, Heaving, Surging,
Swaying and yawing. When these motions are large then very large forces may be
generated. Though, they are local in nature e.g. pounding forward, but they cause structure
to vibrate and transmit the stresses to other parts of the structure.

These forces produce two type of stresses in ship’s structure:

I. Global stresses (Longitudinal and Transverse stresses) – affecting the whole ship.
II. Local stresses – those affecting a particular part of the ship.

Longitudinal stresses.
There are four main types of longitudinal stresses:

1. Sagging. Sagging stresses are caused by the uneven distribution of weight and buoyancy
along the length of the ship, causing the middle part to bend downwards. This can happen
when the ship is supported on both ends by waves, which can lift the ends and reduce the
buoyancy of the center,
causing it to sag. This type
of stress is called sagging
and can be harmful to the
ship if not monitored and
managed properly.

2. Hogging. It is the opposite of sagging. It occurs when a wave passes under a ship and the
middle of the vessel is supported by the crest of the wave while the two ends hang over the
crest on either side. This uneven distribution of weight and buoyancy creates stress that can
cause the ship's
structure to bend
upwards in the middle.
This type of stress is
known as hogging and
can also be harmful to
the ship if not properly
managed.
 3. Vertical shear forces. It is the forces that act parallel to a ship's surface and perpendicular
to its length in opposite directions on any part of a structure to break it apart or shear it.
These forces are caused by waves, winds, and the ship's own motion through the water.
Shear forces can cause stress on a
ship's structure, particularly at the joints
between different sections of the hull or
deck. If the stress becomes too great, it
can cause the ship to twist or deform,
which can be dangerous or even cause
the ship to break apart.

4. Torsional forces. When a ship is hit by waves on either side, it can be subjected to two
types of motion: rolling (side-to-side movement) and pitching (up-and-down movement).
When a ship experiences both rolling and pitching at the same time, it can cause the ship's
hull to twist along its longitudinal axis,
generating what is called torsional stresses or
forces. In other words, the hull of the ship twists
as it responds to the combined motion of rolling
and pitching, and this twisting can cause
additional stresses on the ship's structure.

Transverse stresses.
There are three main types of transverse stresses:

1. Racking. When a vessel is rolling in a seaway the transverse section will try to bend or twist
at the corners due to racking stresses. This can
happen when a vessel is rolling back in rough seas,
causing different parts of the vessel to move in
opposite directions. This stress can be particularly
strong at the corners or joints of the vessel, which
may be more vulnerable to bending or warping.

2. Water pressure. Water acts perpendicular to the

surface of the submerged hull and increases with
depth. This produces collapsing stresses which must
be resisted. If the pressure is too great, it can even
cause the hull to crack or rupture, leading to a
dangerous situation.

3. Docking stresses. When a ship is drydocked it loses the

support of the water. This can cause the sides of the ship
near the bottom to bend downwards, putting pressure on
the support beams. To prevent this, special blocks and
supports are used to hold the ship in place and keep it
from sagging too much. These blocks are placed under
the keel and sides of the ship to help distribute the weight
and keep it stable while out of the water.
 Local stresses.
There are three main types of local stress:

1. Panting. When the ship is under way in a seaway, she is subjected to changes in pressure
caused by the waves and the pitching if the ship. The variation of pressure at the ends
causes the ship to vibrate due to panting stresses.

2. Pounding. It occurs at the bottom plating of the ship near the bow during excessive pitching
when the ship's bow repeatedly slams into waves.

3. Middle weight stresses. The concentration of

heavy weights along the centre line of the hold
causes the sides to tend to collapse inwards.

Six Degree of Motion

Rolling: This is the side-to-side motion of a ship around its longitudinal axis. It occurs due to the
movement of the waves or any other external forces acting on the ship.

Pitching: This is the up-and-down motion of a ship around its transverse axis. It occurs when
the bow of the ship rises and falls with the waves.

Heaving: This is the vertical motion of a ship along its vertical axis. It is the movement of the
ship in the water as the waves pass beneath it.

Surging: This is the forward and backward movement of a ship along its longitudinal axis. It is
caused by the alternating rise and fall of the bow and stern with the waves.

Swaying: This is the movement of a ship from side to side along its transverse axis. It occurs
due to external forces such as wind, waves or currents pushing against the side of the ship. It
can also happen when weight shifts from one side of the ship to the other.

Yawing: This is the rotating motion which spins the ship around it’s vertical axis. It is caused by
external forces acting on the ship, such as wind or waves, and can affect the heading and
direction of the ship.
 [Link] STABILITY CRITERIA
According to the International Code on Intact stability, 2008, the following criteria are mandatory
for passenger and cargo ships:

1. The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.055 metre-
radians up to 30° angle of heel.

2. The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.09 metre-
radians up to 40° angle of heel or the angle of downflooding if this is less than 40°.

3. The area under the righting curve between the angles of heel of 30° and 40° or between 30°
and the angle of downflooding if this angle is less than 40°, should not be less than 0.03
metre-radians.

4. The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20 m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than
30°.

5. The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but
not less than 25°.

6. The initial metacentric height GM should not be less than 0.15 m.

Downflooding: The entry of seawater through any opening into the hull or superstructure of an
undamaged vessel [or portion of a vessel] due to heel, trim, or submergence of the vessel.

Downflooding angle means the static angle from the intersection of the vessel's centerline and
the waterline in calm water to the first opening that cannot be closed weathertight and through
which downflooding can occur. It is an angle at which deck immersion takes place with subsequent
water ingress.
 [Link] stability

DAMAGE STABILITY - The ship should be able to survive the breach (flooding) of any one or
more compartment. A damage stability criterion varies from ship to ship and the requirement for
the same is given in SOLAS chapter II-1. It may be single compartment flooding, multi
compartment flooding, engine room flooding etc. Under all the criteria as applicable, vessel margin
line should not be submerged after the damage. Margin line is an imaginary line drawn 75mm
below the free board deck.

Oil tankers shall comply with the following requirements for damage stability criteria:

1. The final waterline, taking into account sinkage, heel and trim, shall be below the
lower edge of any opening through which progressive flooding may take place. Such
openings shall include air-pipes and those which are closed by means of weathertight
doors or hatch covers

2. In the final stage of flooding, the angle of heel due to unsymmetrical flooding shall not
exceed 25°, provided that this angle may be increased up to 30° if no deck edge
immersion occurs.

3. The stability in the final stage of flooding shall be investigated and may be regarded
as sufficient if the righting lever curve has at least a range of 20° beyond the position
of equilibrium in association with a maximum residual righting lever of at least 0.1 m
within the 20° range; the area under the curve within this range shall not be less than
0.0175 m·rad.

4. For oil tankers of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and above delivered on or after 6 July
1996, the damage assumptions shall be:

i. longitudinal extent:

 ships of 75,000 tonnes deadweight and above: 0.6L measured from

the forward perpendicular;

 ships of less than 75,000 tonnes deadweight: 0.4L measured from

the forward perpendicular;

ii. transverse extent: B/3 anywhere in the bottom;

iii. vertical extent: breach of the outer hull