RAHUL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

CAIE
A.Y. 2025-26

Subject: Physics Grade: 8th CAIE

Topic: Motion Forces and Energy

Thermal Physics
 Speed-Time Graphs
• Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against time.
• Used to solve motion problems.
Constant Speed
• Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving with a constant speed of 25 m/s.
A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates constant speed.

Constant Acceleration
 • The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant acceleration.

• The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating constant acceleration.

Variable Acceleration
Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, constant speed, and
deceleration.

Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with a curved shape.

• Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each second, indicating
decreasing acceleration.

Air Resistance and Free Fall

• In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due to air resistance.

• In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.

• Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies compared to heavy bodies.

• Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low speeds.

Acceleration of Free Fall

• All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate uniformly if air resistance is
negligible.
 • This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of free fall, denoted by ( g
).

• The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on average.

• The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about 9.8m/s every second.

A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by about 9.8 m/s
every second, reaching its highest point after 3 seconds.

As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its acceleration.

• When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a terminal velocity.

• Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and weight.

• A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and accelerates for a longer
distance.

• A light object or one with a large surface area, like a raindrop or parachute,
has a low terminal velocity and accelerates over a shorter distance.

• Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling parachutist:

Explanation:
• Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, they experience free fall. During
this phase, their velocity increases steadily due to the acceleration of gravity
(approximately 9.8m/s29.8m/s2 acting downwards. The graph slopes upwards steeply.
• Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases significantly when the parachutist
deploys their parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration, leading to a less steep
slope on the graph. The parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a slower rate
compared to free fall.
• Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall, their velocity eventually reaches a
maximum constant value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the forces of gravity
and air resistance (drag) balance out, resulting in zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time
graph, this appears as a horizontal line where the velocity remains constant.
Mass and Weight

Mass

• The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it. It is a

measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to an observer.

• The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the gram (g) being one-
thousandth of a kilogram: 1g=10−3kg=0.001kg1g=10−3kg=0.001kg

• Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational force on an object with

mass.

Weight

• Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that has mass.

• The weight of an object can vary with location due to differences in

gravitational field strength.

• The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in newtons and can be
determined using a spring balance.

Gravitational Field

• Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact with the Earth to
fall towards it.

• Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass and is a vector
quantity with magnitude and direction.

• On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2, representing both the

acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength.
Density

Definition

• Density is the measure of mass per unit volume

• Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).

Calculation Methods

• Regular Shape: Measure mass (m)(m) using a balance, and measure volume
(V) by direct measurement of dimensions.

• Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m)(m) using a balance. Measure volume (V)
using displacement methods:

Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled with water, record the
initial and final water levels to find volume.

Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout. Immerse the object
in the water and find the volume of water displaced. That volume of water is
the volume of the object.
 • Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add liquid, measure
total mass, and subtract to find the mass of the liquid. Divide by the known
volume to find density.

• Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then remove the air with a
vacuum pump. Calculate air density by dividing the mass difference by
volume measured using water displacement.

Example Calculations

Floating and Sinking:

• Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density relative to the liquid's
density. A higher-density object sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa.
Forces

Force

• A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion, speed, or shape of an
object.

• It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction of moving objects.

Extension in Springs

• Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is proportional to the stretching

force up to the limit of proportionality.

• Symbolically, extension∝stretching forceextension∝stretching force

Spring Constant

• The spring constant (k)measures the force needed to cause a unit extension in
a spring.

where (F)is the force applied and (x)(x) is the resulting extension.

Load-Extension Graphs

• Used to graphically represent the relationship between applied force (load)

and resulting extension in materials like springs.

• Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality indicate permanent

deformation.
Forces and Resultants

• Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by arrows in diagrams.

• Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g. weight and support
force) or have a resultant force.

• The resultant force is the single force that has the same effect as all forces
acting together.

• A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by altering its speed or
direction of motion.

Newton’s First Law

• An object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant speed in a

straight line unless acted upon by a resultant force.

• This means that no force is required to maintain constant velocity if no

external forces act on the object.

Friction and Air Resistance

• Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to slow down and
eventually come to rest.

• In their absence, objects would continue moving indefinitely with constant

speed.

Newton’s Second Law

 • States that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force
acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

• Mathematically expressed as:

F=ma

where (F)is the resultant force in newtons N m is the mass in kilograms (kg), and
a is the acceleration in meters per second squared .

Proportional Relationships

Resultant Force and Motion

• Resultant force (F)causes an object to accelerate in the direction of the force.

• When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but changes in shape may
occur due to internal forces within the object.

Friction

• Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one surface over another.

• It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can prevent proper
movement on surfaces like ice.

Types of Friction

• Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting of motion
between surfaces in contact.

• Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the motion of surfaces
sliding past each other.

• Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object moving through a

fluid (air or liquid), increasing with speed and reducing acceleration.

Effect of Force and Mass on Friction

• Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases friction initially.

 • Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, causing a rise in
temperature when contacting surfaces.

Centripetal Force

• In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due to a force directed

towards the centre of the circle.

Acceleration in Circular Motion

• Despite constant speed, circular motion involves acceleration because velocity

direction changes continuously.

• Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary to maintain circular

motion.

Factors Affecting Centripetal Force

Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:

• Speed (v)(v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.

• Radius (r)(r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force.

• Mass (m)(m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.

Role of Centripetal Force

• It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from the centre of the
circle.
Moment of a Force

• The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called the moment of the
force.

• It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance
from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

• Mathematically, the moment is given by:

M=F×d

where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the
force.

• The unit of moment is the Newton metre (Nm).

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

• To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of moments (or law of
moments) is used.

• The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments
about any point equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same
point.

• This principle is essential for designing and understanding the equilibrium of

lever systems and other balanced structures.

Conditions for Equilibrium

An object is in equilibrium if:

• The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static equilibrium).

• The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) around any point is
zero (rotational equilibrium).

Centre of Gravity

• The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is the point through
which the entire weight of the object acts.

• It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this single point.

 • For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity is at its geometric
centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

• Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina involves

suspending the object from different points and using a plumb line to mark
the vertical line through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where these
lines intersect.

Stability and Toppling

• The stability of an object depends on the position of its centre of gravity

relative to its base.

• An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its base of support.

• Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls
outside the base of support.

• Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of gravity improves stability.

Types of Equilibrium

• Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original position when displaced

slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl).

• Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from its original

position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler balanced on its edge).

• Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position when displaced

(e.g., a ball sitting on a flat surface).
Momentum

• Momentum (pp) is the product of an object's mass (mm) and its velocity (vv).

• Mathematically, p=mv

• It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.

• The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (kgm/s) or newton

second (Ns).

Conservation of Momentum

• The total momentum of a closed system of objects remains constant if no

external forces act on it (such as friction or air resistance).

• This principle is known as the conservation of momentum.

• Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and inelastic) and

explosions. For example, in a collision, the total momentum before and after
the collision remains the same.

P initial=p final
Energy, work and power

Types of energy stores

• Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of substances like food,

fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood).

• Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses due to its

position relative to a reference point (usually the Earth's surface).

• Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it is compressed,

stretched, or deformed.

• Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.

• Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects due to their separation

in an electric field.

• Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom..

 • Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the microscopic motions
and interactions of particles within a substance.

Energy Transfers

• Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action of a force, like lifting a

weight.

• Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric current, such as in

batteries or electric motors.

• Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of energy through waves, like

light or sound waves.

• Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes, like heating water in a

boiler.

Principle of Conservation of Energy

• Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to

another. Thus the total amount of energy is constant.

Energy Forms
How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations

• Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a boiler to produce heat.

• Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is burned directly in a

gas turbine.
 • The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to boil water, creating
high-pressure steam.

• The steam drives turbines connected to electrical generators.

• Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted on a shaft, which
rotates when steam is directed onto them.

• As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is transferred to the rotor,
causing it to spin.

• The spinning rotor generates electricity through electromagnetic induction in

the generator.

How hydroelectric power stations work

• They run using the kinetic energy generated from the flow of water moving
downstream.

• This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to generators.

• These generators then produce electricity that can be used by households.

How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations

• Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission reactions with uranium
to generate heat.

• This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a heat exchanger.

• The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines connected to

generators to produce electricity.

• The operation involves the steam passing through a turbine's fixed blades
(stator) onto the rotating blades (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy
is converted into rotational motion.

• The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the electrical generator,
producing electricity for consumption.

Power

• The power of a device is the work it does per second, or the rate at which it
does work.

• Power also represents the rate at which energy is transferred from one store
to another.
 Thermal Physics

Kinetic Particle Model of Matter

States of Matter

• Matter consists of tiny particles like molecules and atoms.

• Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with different characteristics.

• Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles are close together in
fixed positions.

• Liquids have a definite volume and take the shape of their container. The
particles are further apart and can slide over each other.

• Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles move much further
apart and freely.

Brownian Motion

• Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids and gases) and is

caused by collisions with smaller, faster-moving particles.
 Temperature and kinetic energy

• Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room temperature.

• Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their average kinetic

energy.

• Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute zero (-273°C or 0 K)

stops all motion.

• Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature achievable.

Pressure and Kinetic Energy

• Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds.

• Each gas particle collision with a container wall changes its momentum,
creating a force.

• The average force per unit area on container walls remains constant at a
constant temperature.

• Increasing temperature raises collision frequency, increasing average force

and gas pressure.

Effect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant Volume)

• Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles.

• Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and energetic collisions with the
container walls.

• Increased collisions result in higher pressure according to a gas law:

( PV = nRT )

Effect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant Temperature)

 • Reducing the volume of a gas increases the concentration of particles.

• More particles per unit volume lead to more collisions with the container
walls.

• The pressure increases proportionally to the decrease in volume:

Variations in Gas Pressure with Volume

Thermal properties and temperature

Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

• Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more, causing them to
push apart slightly, resulting in expansion.

• Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions with container walls,
which causes container expansion to maintain pressure.

Applications

• Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with different expansion rates (e.g.,
copper and iron). Used in:

o Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit when exposed to

heat, triggering alarms.

o Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to break or complete

electrical circuits
• Shrink-fitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting tightly into other
parts upon warming. Used in manufacturing for tight connections without
fasteners.

• Lid Removal: Expanding metal lids with hot water loosens them from glass
jars, leading to easier opening.

Precautions

• Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used in railways, and
pipes to allow for thermal expansion without damage

Internal Energy and Heating

• Internal energy increases when an object is heated.

• Different materials require varying amounts of heat to raise their

temperatures due to differences in specific heat capacity.

• Specific heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius per unit mass.

Temperature and Thermal Energy

• Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of particles.

Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a substance, and more

•
particles can hold more total thermal energy even if they have lower individual
particle energies.

Heat Transfer and Equilibrium

• Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies until thermal

equilibrium is reached.

• This transfer is caused by collisions between particles, making their average

kinetic energies equal.
 Change of State

• Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a liquid to a solid

(freezing).

• Pure substances melt and freeze at specific temperatures, such as water at

0°C.

• Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming intermolecular forces to

become a liquid.
 • Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential energy from particles
to surroundings as a liquid becomes solid.

• Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome intermolecular forces in

a liquid to become gas (vapour).

• Condensation involves gas particles losing potential energy to their

surroundings as they return to a liquid state.

Evaporation

• Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or draughts increase the
rate of evaporation.

• Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid during evaporation,

cooling the liquid.

• Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to maintain a constant

temperature.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Feature Boiling Evaporation

Temperature Occurs at a Occurs at any temperature below the boiling point.

specific boiling
temperature.

Process Bubbles of Occurs at the surface of the liquid.

vapour form
 Feature Boiling Evaporation

within the
liquid.

Energy Requires Requires less heat and occurs due to energetic

Requirement sufficient heat to
particles escaping.
reach boiling
point.

Speed Rapid compared Slower compared to boiling.

to evaporation.

Throughout Happens Happens only at the liquid's surface.

Liquid? throughout the
entire volume of
the liquid.

Transfer of thermal energy

Conduction

• Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to cold without moving
matter.

• Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum); insulators (wood, plastic)
are poor conductors.

• Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the hand compared to
insulators at the same temperature.

• Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the particles are further apart
and need time to transfer energy to each other.

• Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons, raising temperatures in

cooler areas and lattice vibrations.

• Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or molecular vibrations,

lacking free electrons.
 Convection

• Heat transfer method in fluids like liquids and gases.

• Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter itself.

Convection Currents

• Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less dense.

• Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm fluid.

This movement of fluids due to temperature differences is known as a convection

current.

Radiation

• A method of thermal energy transfer which occurs without matter, even in

vacuum.

• Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light.

Absorption and Reflection

• Surfaces vary in radiation absorption.

 • Black surfaces absorb more than shiny white ones.

Emission

Surface Absorption of Emission of Radiation

Type Radiation

Shiny White Poor absorber Poor emitter

Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter

• Surfaces emit radiation differently when hot.

• Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces.

• All bodies emit radiation above absolute zero.

Greenhouse effect

• Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a greenhouse.

• Balance between incoming solar radiation and emitted Earth radiation crucial
for climate stability.

• Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this balance and absorb more
infrared which cannot escape.