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UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

CAIE CHECKPOINT
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PHYSICS SYLLABUS
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

This temperature is measured on a scale that has 2 fixed

points.
1. Length, Mass and Time The Celsius scale is the most used scale.
Its two fixed points are 0’ C (melting point of pure ice +
1.1. Measuring Length freezing point of pure water) and 100’ C (boiling point of
pure water).
Is the distance from one point to another. In between these two values, the scale is divided into 100
The SI or the standard unit of length is the metre (m) units or degrees.
Measured using ruler, trundle wheel, measuring tape. The thermometer compares the temperature of the
substance, with the freezing and boiling point of water.
Unit Symbol Number of Metres The lowest possible temperature is -273’ C (known as
kilometre km 1000 m absolute zero)
metre m 1m
centimetre cm 0.01 m Liquids in Thermometers
millimetre mm 0.001 m Alcohol or Mercury are the common liquids used inside
micrometre μm 0.000 001 m thermometers.
nanometre nm 0.000 000 001 m If the bulb of the thermometer is placed in a hot
substance, the liquid inside expands and spreads up
Measuring Mass inside the tube. The level it reaches depends on the
hotness of the substance, and the temperature can be
The quantity of matter that an organism/object contains. read in the scale.
The SI or standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) If the bulb is placed in a cold substance, the liquid inside
Measured using top pan balance, weighing machine, contracts and backs down the tube. The level it settles can
weighing balance. be read from the scale.

Unit Symbol Number of kilograms

megatonne Mt 1 000 000 000 kg
2. Forces and Their Effect
tonne t 1000 kg
kilogram kg 1 kg 2.1. What is Forces?
gram g 0.001 kg
You cannot see a force but you can see what it does. A force
milligram mg 0.000 001 kg is a push or a pull.
Forces can:
Measuring Time
Make an object move
A measure used to define smaller divisions of a day. Make a moving object stop
The SI or standard unit of time is the second (s) Change the speed of a moving object
Measured using stopwatch. Change the direction of a moving object
To make events like the Olympics very accurate, and to Change the shape of an object.
avoid human reaction time, special timers called light
gates are used. How To Measure A Force?

Unit Symbol Number of seconds A force can be measured with a newton spring balance.
day d 86 400 s (1440 min or 24 h) The SI unit of measuring force in N (newton)
hour h 3600 s (60 min) Equation: F=m x a
F= force (N)
minute min 60 s
m= mass (kg)
second s 1s a= acceleration (m/s²)
millisecond ms 0.001 s
2.2. Type of Force
Heat and Temperature There are two main types of forces: contact force and
non-contact force
1.2. Measuring Temperature
Contact Force
The hotness or coldness of a substance is measured by
taking its temperature.

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A contact force occurs when the object or material
exerting the force touches the object or material on which
the force acts.
Example:
Impact force
When a moving object collides with a stationary
object an impact force is exerted by one object on
the other.
Example: Hammer hits a nail, and when a moving
molecule of gas in the airstrikes the skin
Strain force
When some materials are squashed, stretched,
twisted, or bent, they exert a force that acts in the
opposite direction to the force acting on them. It’s
called elastic material
When the force applied to the material is removed,
the strain force exerted by the material restores
the deformed material to its original shape.
Example: The strain force in a squashed tennis ball
as it is hit returns the ball to its original shape
when the ball has left the racket.
Friction
Friction is a contact force that occurs between two
objects when there is a push or a pull on one of the
objects that could make it move over the surface
of the other object.
As the push or pull on the object increases, the
force of friction between the surfaces of the object
also increases. This force matches the strength of
the push or the pull up to a certain value.
Where the projections from the surface of one
object meet the projections from the surface of the
other, the materials in the projection stick. These
connections between the surfaces produce the
force of friction between the object.
Reducing friction: Water running between the
surface of a tire and the road reduces the friction
between them and increases the chance of
skidding.
Increasing friction: When brakes are applied on a
bicycle or a car, the brake pads press against a
moving part of the wheel, and the force of friction
increases.
Air resistance
When an object moves through the air it pushes
the air out of the way and the air moves over the
object’s sides and pushes back on the object. This
push on the object is called air resistance or drag
The value of the air resistance depends on the size
and shape of the object.
Example: The parachute offers a large surface
area against which the air pushes. The high
resistance of the parachute slows down the
dragster and helps it stop in a short distance.
Water resistance
When an object moves through the water it pushes
the water out of the way, and the water moves
over the object’s sides and pushes back on the
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object. This push on the object is called water
resistance or drag.
An object that can move through the water quickly
have a streamlined shape
Example: Water resistance affects the movement
of ships and boats on the water surface. Boats
designed for high speeds have a hull shaped to
reduce water resistance as much as possible.
Non-contact force
A non-contact force occurs when the objects or materials
do not touch each other. They all exert their force without
having to touch the object.
Example:
Magnetic force
If you bring the north pole of one magnet towards
the south pole of another magnet, you will feel
your hands being pulled together as the different
poles attract each other. The strength of this pull
increases as the poles get closer together.
A magnet can also exert a non-contact force on
objects made of iron, steel, cobalt, or nickel. Either
pole of the magnet exerts a pulling force on these
magnetic materials. The strength of the force
increases as the magnet and the magnetic
material are brought closer together.
Gravitational force
The force that exists between any two masses
because of their mass is called gravitational force.
The gravitational force between an object on earth
and the earth itself pulls the object down towards
the center of the earth is called the weight of the
object.
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount
of matter in it. The weight of an object is the pull of
the Earth’s gravity on the object.
The region in which a force acts is called a field
gravitational field strength: weight/mass
Unit: N/kg
Weightlessness: The gravitational field strength
around a planet, moon, or star gets weaker and
weaker as you move further away
Example: Inside the spacecraft every object
that is not held down floats about. The floating
state is called apparent weightlessness
because it feels like having no weight but the
objects are still being pulled by the Earth’s
gravity.
Gravity and weight: If an object is weighed on Earth
then weighed again on the Moon, its weight will be
seen to decrease.
This is due to the mass of the Moon being
much less than the mass of the Earth.
2.3. What is Speed?
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Speed is the quantity that tells you how fast something is

moving.
Unit: m/s (meters/second)

How to Calculate Speed?

We need to measure two quantities:

Distance traveled (m, in meters)
Time taken (s, in seconds)
Equation: Average speed= distance traveled/time taken
We have to say average speed because the speed
might be changing when they are moving (speeding
up or slowing down)

Calculating Speed
How to read the graph:
Example 1: A runner completes a 200 m race in 25 s.
How far has the runner traveled after 10s? Find the
What is her average speed?
10s in the time axis and draw a line straight up from
Known:
this point until it reaches the graph line, as shown.
Distance: 200 m Then, draw horizontally across to the distance axis. So
Time took: 25 s the answer is 20 m.
Question: Average speed (s)?
\
Answer: S= d/t
Illustration: (if the speed is not constant)
S=200/25= 8 m/s.
Example 2: A car travel is 100 m in 5 s. What is its average
speed?
Known:
Distance: 100 m
Time took: 5s
Question: Average speed (s)?
Answer: S=d/t
S=100/5= 20 m/s.
Example 3: A red car travels 400 m in 20 s. A blue car
travels 660 m in 30 s. Which car has the greater average
speed?
Known: How to read the graph?
Red car distance: 400 m A= uphill
Red car time: 20 s B= rest
Blue car distance: 660 m C= uphill
Blue car time: 30 s D= downhill
Question: Average speed (s)?
Answer: Average speed (s)? Section of journey Time (h) Distance (km)
Average speed red car: Sred= d red/ t red= Start 0 km 0 km
400/20= 20 m/s A 2 hours 30 km
Average speed blue car: Sblue= d blue/ t blue= B 1 hour 30 km
660/30= 22 m/s
C 1/2 Hour 60 km
In conclusion, the blue car has greater average
speed. D 1 1/2 hours 0 km

2.4. Drawing Distance/Time Graphs 2.5. What is Pressure?

We can draw a distance/time graph to represent a Pressure is defined as the force per unit area (P=F/A)
journey. The force of an object can be worked out by
It can be used to find out distances traveled and times multiplying mass x gravity (9.81 m/s^2)
taken during a journey. The relationship:
Illustration: (if it is steady speed) If the constant area, the force applied is directly
x-axis: time (s) proportional to the pressure.
y-axis: distance (m)

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If the force is held constant, the pressure is inversely Answer:

proportional to the area. 1. Find the mass of water
If the pressure is held constant, then the force is Mass of water= density of water x volume of water
directly proportional to the area. m=1 x 250
SI Unit= Pa (N/m^2). It can be also a bar, atm, kPa, etc. m=250 gram
Illustration: 2. Find the mass of saltwater
Mass total= mass of salt + mass of water
Mass total= 25 + 250
Mass total= 275 gram
3. Find the density
P (rho) = mass/volume \n P (rho) = 275 g/250
mL \n P (rho) = 1.1 g/mL
Conclusion: The density of saltwater is 1.1 g/mL

Calculating The Density Of Gas

The same goes with liquid, we need to calculate the mass

2.6. What is Density? total then the mass of the gas.
Example: For example, if the full balloon had a mass of 1
A measure of how compact the mass in a substance or kg and the empty balloon had a mass of 0.5 kg. The
object is. balloon displaced 1 L of water. What’s the density of the
Density could be described as the number of gas?
kilograms that 1 meter cubed of a substance weighs. Answer:
Formula: P (rho) = m/v 1. Find the mass of gas:
SI Unit: kg/m^3 (common), g/cm^3, g/mL (depends on the Mass of gas= mass of gas baloon-mass of baloon
substance) Mass of gas= 1-0.5 kg
Mass of gass= 0.5 kg
Calculating The Density of Solid 2. Find the density
P (rho) = mass/volume
Example: A rectangular prism has a mass of 42.0 grams P= 0.5/1 L
and has dimensions of 2 cm in width, 6 cm long, and 0.5 P= 500 g/L
cm in height. What is the density of this object? Conclusion: The density of the gas is 500 g/L
Answer:
1. Find the volume of rectangular prism:
l x w x h= 2 x 6 x 0.5= 6 cm^3 3. Energy
2. Put them in the formula:
P (rho)= m/v = 42 g/6 cm^3= 7 g/cm^3
Conclusion: The density of the object is 7g/cm^3.
3.1. What is Energy?
Energy is the property of something that makes it able to
Calculating The Density of Liquid
apply a force and do work.
There are two kinds of energy: stored energy and
However, since water is a liquid, it needs to be in some
movement energy.
sort of container. So in order to weigh the water, they
have to weigh the container, too.
3.2. Forms of Energy
As we know there are two kinds of energy: stored energy
and movement energy.
Stored energy is also known as potential energy. Because
it gives something the potential to use its stored energy,
Movement energy is also known as kinetic energy. It came
from the greek word means motion.’

There are several forms of each kind of energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

Example: A solution of water and salt contains 25 grams
of salt in 250 mL of water. What is the density of The force of gravity between an object and the Earth pulls
saltwater? (Use density of water = 1 g/mL) the object towards the centre of the planet.

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If the object is in a position above the surface of the Earth,
they stored energy called gravitational potential energy.
Example: There is a plate on a table, this plate is
supported by something (table) but if the support is
removed, they will accelerate to the Earth’s surface and
their potential energy will be released and changed into
other form.
Strain Energy
Known as elastic potential energy
Some material is elastic, which means that they can be
easily squashed, stretched or bent, but still get back into it
shape once the force acting on them is removed.
When their shape is changed by squashing, stretching
or bending, they store energy which will allow them to
return to their original shape.
Chemical Energy
The chemical energy is stored in the links between the
atoms.
The chemicals are made from atom that are linked
together to make molecules.
The energy is released when the links are broken and
the molecule (energy stored) is broken down into
smaller molecules.
Example:
Carbohydrate are a store of chemical energy in food.
During respiration, carbohydrate is broken down into
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The energy
that is released in this process is used by our body.
Fuel → Heat homes, heat water
Kinetic Energy
Everything that move has kinetic energy
When an object with kinetic energy hit another object, a
force acts on them both that will distort the second object
or set it moving.
Example: If you move your foot and kick a ball, the ball
moves away.
Sound Energy
Produced by the vibration of an object.
Sound energy can passes through solids, liquid, and
gases.
They move back and forth in order way so that the wave
spreads out in all direction from the point when the
vibration is produced.
Example: Playing guitar.
Electrical Energy
Electrical current is the movement of electrical charges
through a conductor. Where the electrical charges are
given electrical energy by the battery and carry it to the
working part.
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Example: Lamp, the energy changes into light and heat.
Internal Energy
Also known as thermal energy
All substance are made up of particles. When the
temperature is increase, the movement is also increase.
This is because the particles receive more energy, so that
it will move faster.
Electromagnetic Energy
There is a form of energy that can travel through space at
the speed of light. This energy has properties such as
electricity and magnetism. This is called energy
electromagnetic waves.
These waves make up rays of light and heat, this form
of energy is called radiation energy
Light Energy
Light energy is kinetic energy with the ability to make
types of light can be detected with human eyes.
3.3. Energy Changes
When energy is used, it always changes from one form to
another and some always changes into heat energy.
Example:
Light: Electrical energy → light energy and heat energy
Playing drum: Chemical energy → sound energy and
movement energy
Wasted Energy
When we turn on the light, it will change from electrical
energy into light energy and heat energy. In this case, we
only use the light energy, so that the heat energy
considered as wasted energy.
When we use vacuum cleaner, some machine make
noises, it wasted the sound energy.
Fuels
Substances that are burned to release their chemical
energy to provide heat and light are called fuels.
Examples: Wood, coal, gas, charcoal, oil, diesel oil, natural
gas, wax, etc.
Some gases and waxes are used to provide light in
homes, tents.
Expand gases in vehicle engines and turn on hot water
into steam to generate electricity.
Coal, gas, and oil were formed from plants and
animals are called fossil fuels.
Fossil Fuels
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Coal is formed from plants that grew up million years ago.
When they died, they fell into the swamps. Because
swamps is lack of oxygen, it prevent the bacteria to grow
and decompose the dead plants. Then it will form peat,
later the peat became buried and was squashed by the
rocks. The increase in pressure slowly changed the peat
into coal.
The oil and methane gas also formed in the same way.
When animal died, they sink to the ocean floor and the
dead plankton that collected on the ocean floor did not
decompose because the lack of oxygen. Then, the remain
formed a layer which covered the rock. The weight of the
rock squeezed the layer and heated it and it converted the
layer of dead plankton into oil and methane gas.
Renewable Resources
Because fossil fuels need million years to be form, then
the supplies of fossil fuels are limited. By the time goes,
there will be not enough to meet our needs.
Scientist trying to develop renewable resources by:
Convert the wind into electric energy by using the
power plants.
Using the natural rise and fall of tides by the
gravitational interaction between the Earth, Sun, and
Moon (tidal energy).
Using the movement of water from river
(hydroelectricity)
Using the light of the sun (solar power)
3.4. Energy Transfer and Transform
As the energy is transferred it is transformed.
Example:
Reading a book with electric light: The electrical
energy is being transformed into light energy.
To keep our body warm, some of the stored chemical
energy is transformed.
Energy Transfer Diagram
Energy transformation can be shown by energy diagrams.
There are 3 parts to an energy transfer diagram:
The first object is showing the energy input
The second object is showing an energy converter or
transducer
The third object is showing the energy output
Example:
Blowing up balloon: kinetic energy → ballon → strain
energy
Taking a photograph: light energy → camera →
chemical energy
Releasing a catapult: strain energy → catapult →
kinetic energy
Sankey Diagram
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A sankey diagram is a second kind of diagram that shows
energy changes
It features arroes of different width. The width of the
arrow indicates the amount of energy it represent.
The unit in which energy and work are measured is called
the joule (J).
Example:
3.5. Plants and Energy
Energy stored inside the seed is used as the root grows
and seeks out water. Stored energy is also used by the
growing shoot.
There is a process of making food inside the plant by the
light energy called photosynthesis.
Some of the light energy falling on the leaves is
trapped inside them. It is converted into stored
chemical energy as the plant makes food using water
from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air.
Then the chemical energy stored in a plant is transferred
to a herbivorous animal then has a store chemical energy
which keeps them alive. For carnivorous animal, they feed
on herbivorous animal and stored the chemical energy.
Thus chemical energy that stored in animal are all
came from the light energy that trapped in plant.
Human and Energy
The chemical energy in food is released in a process
called respiration.
When the energy is released, carbon dioxide and
water are produced. The carbon dioxide is released
into the air when we breathe out. The water is used in
our body or released in swear and urine.
Most of the energy that released in our body is used for
movement and to keep our body temperature constant.
3.6. The Difference Between
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
in Heat Transfer
Heat is the transfer of energy from a warmer object to a
cooler object
There are types of heat transfer
Conduction
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The transfer of energy by direct contact.
This transfer occurs when molecules hit against each
other.
Happened due to the difference in temperature
Conduction takes place in solids, liquids, and gases, but
works best in materials that have simple molecules
(example: metals).
Heat transfer in conduction is pretty slow.
Convection
Convection is the movement of heat by a fluid such as
water or air.
The fluid (liquid or gas) moves from one location to
another, transferring heat along with it.
Happened due to the difference in density.
Heat transfer in convection is faster than conduction.
Heat transfer occurs through intermediate objects.
For example, steaming cup of hot tea.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic
waves.
In addition to the sun, light bulbs, irons, and toasters also
transfer heat via radiation.
Heat transfer by radiation does not need any matter to
help with the transfer.
Heat transfer in radiation is the fastest among all.
The heat transfer occurs in all objects with a temperature
greater than 0 K.
3.7. Energy Resource
What is Energy Resource?
An energy resource is anything from which one can obtain
energy.
Most the energy comes from fossil fuels. These are coal,
oil, and natural gas.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are stores of chemical energy. The energy is
released when the fuel is burnt.
Ex: In a car engine, petrol and air are mixed together.
A spark ignites the mixture and it burnt. The energy
released makes the car move forward.
Fossil fuels are found underground. Coal is formed from
the remains of plants that died millions of years ago. Oil
and gas formed from the remains of sea creatures.
Generating Electricity
Electricity is a convenient way of sending energy from
place to place. Most electricity is generated in power
stations which burn fossil fuels, especially coal and gas.
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3.8. The Difference Between
Evaporation and Boiling
What is Evaporation?
Evaporation is a bit different from boiling.
The temperature of the water doesn’t have to reach
100°C. Even when the temperature is quite low, the
water gradually turns into water vapor in the air.
Evaporation Cools You Down
On a very sunny day, you may get too hot. One way to cool
down is to get wet.
When you get out, the water evaporated off your skin,
and this cools you down. If there is a breeze blowing,
the water will evaporate more quickly and you will cool
down rapidly.
Evaporation and Energy
When water evaporates from your body, it carries energy
away. That is why you feel cooler.
Evaporation has a cooling effect due to the particles in
water moving around. Some have energy to escape from
the surface, they become water vapor in the air.
The particles with the most energy are the ones that
escape. The ones with less energy is left behind, so
the water is colder than before. Its temperature
decrease
5. Movement In The Sky
5.1. How The Earth Moves?
The Earth is formed from rocks and dust moving around
the Sun.
The Sun and the Stars do not change their position, it is
the daily rotation of the Earth that makes them appear to
move.
Axis
The axis about which the Earth rotates is not
perpendicular to the plane of the Earth's orbit.
The axis is at an angle of about 23 degrees to the
perpendicular and remains to point in the same direction
throughout the Earth’s orbit.
If the axis is perpendicular, the Sun would rise to the same
height in the sky each day of the year
Hemispheres
We divide the Earth into 2 parts: the northern hemisphere
and the southern hemisphere.
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They meet at the equator (an imaginary line running A light-year is a distance traveled by light in a year.
around the middle of the planet between poles) This distance is 9.5 million km.
Example:
How The Season Is Formed? The nearest star to the Sun is called Proxima Centauri,
which is 4.3 light-years away.
As the Earth moves in its orbit there is a time of year This star and the Sun are just two 0f 500.000
when the northern hemisphere is tilting towards the Sun million stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.
and the southern hemisphere is tilting away from it.
6 months later, the northern hemisphere is tilting away Bright Stars
from the Sun and the southern hemisphere is tilting
toward it. The brightness of a star depends on its size, temperature,
This caused the change in the length of day and night, and its distance from the Earth.
and in the strength of the sunlight reaching the area of
the surface. This produces the periods of time called Star Temperature (C) Colour Distance from Earth
seasons. Sun 6000 Yellow 8 light minutes
Sirius 11000 White 8.6 light-years
How The Season Is Changed?
Arcturus 4000 Orange 36 light-years
When a hemisphere is tilting towards the Sun, the path of Betelgeuse 3000 Red 520 light-years
the Sun is different from the path when the hemisphere is Spica 25000 Blue 220 light-years
tilting away from the sun.
Because the east-to-west path of the Sun across the Constellations and Planets
sky changes with the position of the Earth in its orbit.
The path of the sun across the sky when: Constellations: Star Patterns in the Sky.
The hemisphere is tilted towards the sun = mid- The arrangement of the Stars in a constellation is due to
summer their position in space.
The hemisphere is away from the sun = mid-winter The stars may seem to be grouped together at the
It is changing from tilting one direction to the other = same distance from the Earth but they are not.
spring and autumn equinoxes While the stars appear to be fixed in their positions, the
planet does not. Each night, a planet is found in a different
5.2. Light In The Sky position from the previous night.
The planet seems to wander across the night sky
The movement of the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere against the background of constellations. This is due
does not significantly affect the strong light beams from to the way the Earth and the planets move around the
the Moon, the planet and comets shine steadily in the Sky. Sun in their orbits.
The weak light beams that came from the stars are
affected, their light does not shine steadily but appears to 5.3. Phases of The Moon
flicker.
The Moon moves around the Earth in about 28 days.
The Changes In The Starry Sky Phases of the moon: different shapes of the moon as the
moon moves around the Earth, it also spins on its axis.
As the Earth moves around its orbit, it passes different Only the side of the Moon’s surface that is facing the Sun
groups of stars and they appear in the night sky. reflects light.
The stars rise over the eastern horizon and move
across the sky in an arc to the western horizon, stars
near either pile appear to move around in a circle
during the night.
They are known as winter, spring, summer, and
autumn stars.

Measuring With Light

The vast distance between two objects in space can be

measured by the time it takes light to travel between
them.
The time for light to travel between two stars is measured
in light-years.
5.4. Early Study

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The movement of the Earth, Moon, Sun, and Planet across

the Sky were studied by ancient civilizations. They used
the movement of the Sun and the Moon to measure time.

Aristarchos (C. 320-250 BCE)

A Greek philosopher suggested that the movement of the

planets could be explained by considering them to move
around the Sun.
The other Greek philosopher was not enthusiastic about
this idea and preferred their model featuring a crystal
sphere.
The arrangement of the planets in the crystal spheres
did not fully fit with the observations made in their
movements in the sky.
Example: Mercury and Venus did not move far from the
Sun as the crystal sphere arrangement suggested they Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
should, the apparent backward motion of Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn that occasionally occurred could not be He was a professor in Italy.
explained by this model. He built a telescope, and he discovered what appeared to
be stars around Jupiter and recorded their position.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) He thought that if these stars were like others in the
universe then the movement of Jupiter must be unlike the
A Polish astronomer suggested that the Sun was at the other planets.
center of the universe and that the planets moved in He decided that Jupiter probably moved just as the
circular orbits around it. other planet did, but the stars were really moons
This model supported the observed movements of the
moving around Jupiter (same as the Moon moves
planets
around the Earth).
Example: The backward motion of Mars, Jupiter, and This is the proof that something in the sky did not
Saturn could be explained by the Earth overtaking them move around the Earth but moved around the object.
as it moved in its orbit around the Sun.
Johannes Kepler (1572-1630)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
A German astronomer that worked with Tycho Brahe.
A Danish astronomer who made detailed observations of He re-examined the vast amount of data that Brahe had
the planets and stars before the invention of the
collected.
telescope.
He studied the orbits of the planet, then he found that the
When a large comet appeared in 1577, he discovered that
data accurately matched orbits of an elliptical shape
it was further away than the moon and not part of the around the Sun.
atmosphere. This provided the final evidence against the Earth-
He also discovered it moved in an elliptical path, centered universe and motion in Solar System.
passing through space where the crystal spheres He also discovered magnetic force with Galileo. He
were thought to be without being restricted to
thought that the force might hold the objects in the Solar
movement within one. System in their place.
He devised a model of his own, where he placed the Earth
at the center of the universe. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

He believed that the force that holds objects in the Solar

System when he saw an apple down to the Earth.
From his calculations on this force of gravity on objects
near the Earth, Newton predicted that the rate of fall of
the Moon needed to give its movement in a curve around
the Earth.
The calculation matched his prediction, from this work
he showed that the objects in the Solar System moved
due to the force of gravity.
The structure of the Solar System and the way things
move in it due to gravity were worked out when it was

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thought that only 6 planets were present.
5.5. The Part of The Solar System
The Planets
The planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits in an
anti-clockwise direction.
The Sun is not the center of the universe but on an arm of
a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way Galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy is 100000 light-years across and
rotates like a huge pinwheel in space at 970000 km/h
It means that the Sun in its position about 28 light-
years from the center of the galaxy takes 225 million
years to go round once.

Distance Orbit 6. The Changing of Sounds

Diameter
Planet Mass from Sun Rotation time time
(km)
(mill.) (days) 6.1. Where Do Sounds Come From?
58 days 15
Mercury 4878 0.056 58 hrs and 30 88 All sounds come from vibrating sources (moving back and
mins forth).
Venus 12100 0.82 108 243 days 224 When you play guitar, you may be able to see the
vibration from the string.
23 hours 56
Earth 12756 1 150 365
mins
Loudness and Pitch
24 hours 37
Mars 6793 0.107 228 686
mins There are 3 types of musicals instrument:
9 hours 50 Stringed instruments (with strings that vibrate)
Jupiter 142880 318 778 4332
mins Wind instruments (the ones that we need to blow)
10 hours 14 Percussion instruments (strike)
Saturn 120000 95 1427 10759 From that, we learn how to make different sounds with the
mins
instruments. Two things can change:
10 hours 49
Uranus 50800 14.5 2871 30707 We can make the sound of instruments louder or
mins
softer by controlling the loudness.
8 days 15
We can make the note higher or lower by changing its
Neptunus 48600 17 4497 hours and 48 90777
pitch.
mins
Loudspeaker
Asteroids
You may wonder how loudness and pitch work, you can
Asteroids are lumps of rocks that move in orbits around see it clearly from a loudspeaker
the Sun.
They formed in the early stages of the Solar System and
range in size (from grains of sand to ceres - the largest
asteroid)
Most asteroids move in orbits between 300 and 500
million km from the Sun.
They form a huge ring of space rubble called the asteroid
belt.
Some asteroids have orbits further away from the Sun
and a few have orbits that take them across the Earth’s
orbit.
Loudspeakers are used to produce sounds from
Comet computers, radio, and TV.
Inside a loudspeaker, there is a paper cone that vibrates
A huge hollow ball of the icy object. back and forth to make the sound.
Some comets are thought to come from the Kuiper Belt In the picture above, the cone produces a loud sound, so
while many others are thought to come from the edge of that the paper cone vibrates up and down.
the Solar System, called the Oort Cloud. It vibrates up and down more frequently when the
pitch of the note is higher.
The Milky Way Galaxy

A Spiral galaxy.
6.2. Properties of The Sounds
Amplitude

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A meter rule is clamped to the bench, and the weight is A light source is an object that emits its own light.
taped to the free end. When you pull the end downward, Hot objects such as flames, the Sun, and torch bulbs,
the weight vibrates up and down. are light sources.
It shows the amplitude of the vibration. Amplitude is the Some light sources are not hot, such as computer
maximum distance when the vibrating object moves from screen
its resting position before it started vibrating.
Straight Lines

When you see the straight rays of light spreading out from
the sun, that tells us that light travels in straight lines.

Frequency

Frequency is the number of vibrations per second.

If an object vibrates 20 times each second, its frequency is
20 Hz
Hz (hertz) is the unit of frequency.
1 Hertz= 1 vibration per second.
For example: The time for 20 oscillation is 25 seconds. Luminous and Non-Luminous
Using the equation: f=n (number of oscillation) / time
(seconds) An object which is a source of light is described as
f= 20/25 luminous
f=0.80 Hz. Examples: Sun, Moon, Stars
An object which is not a source of light is described as
A Complete Vibration non-luminous
Examples: pen, book,chair, table
When the object moves up from its rest position, then
down, and then back to its rest position.

7. Source Of Lights The chair is non-luminous, you need a source of light to

see it
7.1. What Is Light Source?
7.2. When Light Strikes An Object

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When light strikes an object, different things can happen.

It depends on the material the object is made of:
The light may pass straight through the object. It has
been transmitted.
The light mat be absorbed by the object (the object
gets a little warmer). The material is opaque.
The light may bounce off the object. It has been
reflected.

Forming A Shadow

A shadow forms when an opaque object blocks the light. it

forms because light travels in straight lines-it cannot bend
round corners.

Meanwhile a sheet of paper has a rough surface, when

rays of light strike the paper, they are scattered in all
directions.

Rays of Light

To understand where the tree’s shadow will fall, you need

to draw the ray’s light that comes from the sun.
Predicting The Path Of Light

The law of reflection tell us about the direction in which

the ray is reflected.

By understanding the picture above, you can see which

rays are blocked by the tree. This will show you where the
tree’s shadow will be.
How to read the diagram?
The mirror is represented by a straight line; the
7.3. Bouncing Light shading shows the back of the mirror
The ray of light coming in is called the incident ray.
The picture you see in a mirror is called an image.
The ray of light going out is the reflected ray.
A mirror has a flat, and smooth surface. Rays of light
To predict the direction of reflected ray, you need to
bounce off a mirror without being scattered.
draw the normal to the normal surface of the mirror.

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The normal is a straight line drawn at right angles (90

degree) to the mirror.
The law of reflection of light says the two angles marked
in the diagram are equal:
Law of reflection: angle of incidence=angle of
reflection

7.4. Transparent Material

Water and glass are transparent materials. Light can pass
through them, but something happens when light enters
or leaves such a material.

Explaining Dispersion

Dispersion happens because of refraction.

When white light enters a block of glass, some color
bend more than others.
Violet bends the most, red the last.
This means that the different colors travel off in
different directions, so that we can see them
The change of direction of a light ray when it enters or separately.
leaves a transparent materials is called refraction.
7.6. What Is Colored Light?
Rays Changing Direction
To make colored light, there is a filter is placed in front of
The ray travels in a straight line to the surface of water.
a bright white light.
This is where it bends. The straight ray then travels to the
A filter is a piece of colored plastic or glass. It only lets
eye.
through some of the colors which make up white light. It
To understand how it bends, you draw the normal to
absorb the other colors.
the surface at the point where the ray bends. The
For example: a red filter lets through red light. It absorbs
normal is drawn at 90 degree to the surface.
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

7.5. Splitting Light Adding Colored Light

You can see the colors of the rainbow for yourself by
sending a ray of white light into a glass prism (triangular
glass block)
When a light enters the prism it bends (refracted). It
also bends as it leaves the prism.
Something else happens. The white light is split up into
a spectrum of colors. The splitting up of white light into
separate color is called dispersion.
The color of spectrum always appear in the same
order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
How to put white light back together?
Put the primary color (red, green, blue) shine them
together, so that their different colors overlap.
When you use them together, all colors of the
spectrum are present and they add up to give white.
Reflecting Colored Light
Grass is green because it reflects green light from the
Sun.
It absorbs all of the colors of sunlight. This is called
color subtraction.
A red object reflects red light and absorb all other colors.
While objects reflect all colors of light and black objects
absorb all colors.

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Like poles will repel, means both poles are the same
8. Magnets and Magnetic (north pole and north pole) will repel.
Unlike poles will attract, means one north pole and one
Materials south pole will attract each other.

8.1. What Are Magnets? 8.2. What is Magnetic Field?

Permanent Magnets Magnetic Field

Permanent magnet is an object which stays magnetized Any magnetic material placed in the field will be attracted
for a long time. It doesn’t stop being a magnet after it has by the magnet, due to magnets is surrounded by a
been used. magnetic field.

Magnetic Material The Shape of The Field

A material which is attracted by a magnet is called a A magnetic field is invisible. There are some ways to show
magnetic material. up:
Some materials are attracted, other materials are not. Using iron fillings, these tiny pieces of iron will get
Example of magnetic material: together and line up to show the pattern of the field.
Iron Using small compasses, this called plotting
Steel (most of the steels are made from iron) compasses. They will show the direction of the field.
Nickel
Cobalt Magnetic Field Lines
Aluminium
Neodymium We can represent the magnetic field of a magnet by
drawing magnetic field lines (imaginary).
Magnetic Poles Magnetic field lines start from a north pole and end up at
a south pole. They show two things about the field:
Magnets that attract magnetic materials will create The arrows show the direction of the field.
magnetic force. The lines are closest together, the field is strongest.
A bar magnet’s magnetism is strongest at the ends. The
ends of the magnet are called magnetic poles.

8.3. How Electromagnet Works?

Electromagnet

There is a second type of magnet called an

electromagnet, it works using electricity and it can be
switched on and off.
If two magnets are close together, they may attract each
Example: Using electromagnet to lift a scrap car, electric
other or they may push each other away.
motors and generators, doorbell and in electric switches

Magnet Rules

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9.1. Static Electricity

Objects can be given an electric charge by rubbing them.
Electrically charged objects can produce a force of
attraction or repulsion

9.2. Positive and Negative Charge

Explaining Electric Force

There are two types of electric charge which we call

positive (+) ad negative (-)
Positive and negative charges attract one another;
How To Make An Electromagnet? Positive chargers repel one another;
Negative charges repel one another.
Wrap the wire around a piece of iron called a core. Key: Opposites attract
When a current flows in the coil, the iron becomes
magnetized and this makes the magnetic field of the Finding The Sign Of An Electric Charge
electromagnet much stronger.
Making a stronger electromagnet: Using a digital meter called a coulomb meter to find out
Make a coil with more turns of wire, the wire is longer whether a charged object has a positive or negative
and so the electric current flows through it. It makes a charge.
stronger magnetic field.
Make a bigger electric current flow in the coil of wire,
connect 2 batteries to the coil instead of one. This will
make a bigger electric current flow so the magnetic
field will be stronger.

The Field Of An Electromagnet

Whenever an electric current flows in a wire it makes a

magnetic field around it.
The magnetic field of an electromagnet is like the field of
a bar magnet
The magnetic field lines come out of one end of the
electromagnet. This is its north pole.
The fields line go round and back into the other end of
electromagnet. This is its south pole.
Charging by Friction

In an experiment to investigate static electricity, you may

start with a polythene rod and woolen cloth, then an
acrylic rod and woolen cloth both of them are neutral.
When the rod is rubbed using the cloth, the rod gains a
negative electric charge. It is the force of friction that
gives charge to the rod.
If you use a rod made of acrylic instead, you will find
the rod has a positive charge.
The charges that appear when 2 different materials are
rubbed together depend on which material is used.
How An Electromagnet Works?

The magnetic field around a wire is quite weak, by winding

9.3. What are Conductors and
the wire into a coil, it will concentrate the magnetic field Insulators?
into a smaller space making it much stronger.
Describing Conductors and Insulators
9. Electricity

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Metals are described as conductors because they allow through the ammeter.
electricity to pass through them
Plastic and other non-metals are described as insulators Current in A Series Circuit
because they do not allow electricity to pass through
them. When the components are connected end-to-end. The
current flows through the components one after another.
Electric Current The current is the same all the way around a series
circuit.
The lamp is light up because there is an electric current in
the circuit.
Two things are needed for there to be an electric current:
A complete circuit of metal around which the current
can flow.
A cell (a battery) makes the current flow.
A switch breaks a circuit to stop the current from flowing.

Circuit Symbols

Circuit Diagram:
9.5. Why Metals Conduct Electricity?
Explaining About Current Flow

Metals are useful materials because they contain lots of

electrons that can move about inside the metal.
These electrons are not tightly attached to their
atoms.
A cell can make a current flow in a metal wire. Since the
electrons move along in metal wire, the electrons have an
electric charge, so the charge is moving through the
metal.

How A Cell Makes A Current Flow

Circuit symbol:
In the cell, one end is positive and one end is negative.
The positive end attracts electrons (because electrons
have a negative charge).
So, when a circuit is complete, the electrons in the
metal of the circuit start moving around it. They are
pushed from the negative end of the cell and attracted
toward the positive end.
\

9.4. How To Measure An Electric

Current?
Measuring Electric Current

We can measure the current in a circuit using an

instrument called an ammeter. The unit of electric current
is the amp (A).
To connect an ammeter to a circuit, it is necessary to
make a break in the circuit. Then the current can flow

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Lighting A Lamp - Current and Energy
When you push a switch, a current starts immediately.
The electrons are waiting in the wire. They start to move
all around the circuit as soon as the switch is closed.
The cell is the energy source of the circuit. It is a store
of chemical energy.
The current transfers energy from the cell to the lamp.
The lamp gets hot and shines. It is a source of light
energy and heat energy.
9.6. The Voltage of A Cell
Explaining About Voltage
Cells are usually labeled with their voltage (Ex: 1.5V). The
volt (symbol V) is the unit of voltage.
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
To measure the voltage of a cell, wires are connected
from the ends of the cell to the terminals of the
voltmeter. The positive (red) terminal of the voltmeter
should be connected to the positive terminal of the
cell.
If two more cells are connected together in series, the
voltage adds up.
More Voltage, More Amps
If the cells in a circuit are providing a bigger voltage, the
current will also be bigger.
This is because, if there are two cells connected in
series, they give a bigger push to the electrons in the
wires, so there is a bigger current.
If there is a bigger current, the lamp will shine more
brightly.
The current is transferring energy more quickly from
the cells to the lamp.
9.7. One After Another
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What Happens If We Add Other Components To A
Series Circuit?
We can understand why the current is smaller when there
are two lamps in the series circuit.
The electrons are being pushed by the cell. It has to
push them through one lamp and then through the
next.
It is easier for the cell to push the electrons through
one lamp than through two, and so the current is
bigger when there is only one lamp in the circuit.
Electrical Resistance
We can say that a lamp has resistance. The more
resistance there is in the circuit, the harder it is for the
cells to push the electrons around, and so the current is
smaller.
The unit of resistance is Ω (ohm).
Losing Energy
When 2 components are connected in series in a circuit, it
is harder for the current to flow. There is more resistance,
so the current is smaller.
It requires energy for the electrons to flow through
any component which has resistance
9.8. Parallel Diagrams
Understanding Parallel Circuit
When components are connected side by side in this way,
we say they are in parallel with each other.
To remember the difference between series and parallel:
In series means connected end-to-end;
In parallel means connected side-by-side.
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Current in Parallel Circuits

When there are two identical lamps in parallel, there is

twice as much current as when there is only one lamp.
Each lamp gets its own share of the current.
This show that it is easier for the current to flow when
two components are connected in parallel in a circuit.
There is less resistance, so the current is bigger.

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Science

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