1.

0 MINE VENTILATION

1.1 Introduction

Mine ventilation is required for maintaining healthy underground environment.

Without proper ventilation, the mine environment can become unhealthy or
hazardous as a result of inadequate oxygen, emission of toxic gases from various
sources, dust accumulation and rise in temperature. Therefore, the primary
objectives of designing the mine ventilation system for an underground mine
operation are to provide a suitable volume – quality supply of fresh air to the
working areas while simultaneously diluting air bone toxic gases and dust
contaminants generated; diluting combustible gases (CH4); radio active
contaminants(e.g. Radon-daughters);and exhausting the contaminated air from
the mine.

Mine primary ventilation systems should afford reasonable resistance pressure

losses; dilution of by products of combustion exhausted from diesel equipment
utilized underground and provide adequate wet bulb –globe temperature.

The design of mine ventilation circuitry should incorporate safety measures aimed
at for example protecting safety of workers in the event of underground fires.

Fundamentally, mine ventilation concerns the movement of air which is a mixture

of many gases in addition to the usual nitrogen and oxygen.

1.2 Mine Atmosphere

Mine Air

Mine air generally refers to a mixture of gases and vapours filling mine openings.
It is well known that the atmospheric air consists of gases and vapours
surrounding the earth’s surface.
Dry atmospheric air has the following composition (table 1):

Table 1 composition of dry atmosphere

Gas % by volume % by mass
Nitrogen 78.09 75.52
Oxygen 20.95 23.15
Argon and other 0.93 1.23
inert gases
Carbon dioxide 0.03 0.046
In all 100 100
 On the other hand the composition of mine air differs dramatically from dry
atmospheric air. This is due to increase in impurities such as CO2, CH4, CO,
NO2, SO2, Dust, smoke, water vapours etc.
These impurities are classified as:
a) Toxic (CO2, Radon etc.)
b) Non – toxic but explosive gases (CH4, C2H2 acetylene, Hydrogen and higher
hydrocarbons
c) Accurately poisonous gases (CO, NO2, SO2, H2S etc.)
d) Vapours of water, hydrocarbons (fuel lubricants, hg-mercury)
e) Solid impurities (dust, smoke and organisms)

1.2.1 Oxygen

Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It has a specific gravity of

1.105. At 273.15 k and 101.33 KPa, 1 m3 of oxygen has a mass of 1.426 kg.
Compared to other gases, oxygen has very low solubility, with 3 volumes being
dissolved in 100 volumes of water at 293 K. The deficiency of oxygen in mine air
arises mainly due to the following reasons:
 Oxidation process – these processes are many and varied e.g. Oxidation of
combustible substances like timber and minerals (pyrite, coal etc.)
 Addition of large quantities of gases to mine air (Co 2, C2H4) from surrounding
rock medium , respiration process, engine exhaust and blasting works
 From fires and underground works which lead to rapid development of large
oxygen deficiencies.

1.2.3 Importance of oxygen

Oxygen is a life supporting element. During a normal functioning of the lung, it is

absorbed by hemoglobin of the blood to for oxyhaemoglobin. This oxygen is later
released to various parts of the body cells.

The following signs may be observed as a result of oxygen deficiency.

17 % of oxygen – breathing becomes faster and deeper

15 % of oxygen – dizziness
13 % of oxygen leads to unconsciousness after long exposure
10 % of oxygen unconscious follows after an hour and 7 % there is heavy panting
and palpitation. The face turns leaden blue and the senses get dulled and confused
rapidly leading to unconsciousness. Absence of oxygen at all leads to death.

The above physiological effects are with oxygen deficiency only, that is when the
air contains only inert gases like nitrogen and no poisonous gases like carbon
monoxide, nitrous fumes are present.

The following are the oxygen limit prescribed in various countries:

USA – 19.5 %
 RUSSIA – 20 %
INDIA – 19 %

1.2.4 Detection of oxygen deficiency

Oxygen deficiency can be detected by using oil lumps which exhibit a regular fall
in luminous intensity. With 19 % oxygen, the luminous intensity drops to 2/3 its
value in normal air and is extinguished at 17 % oxygen. However, acetylene
(carbide) lamps can burn even with 12 to 13 % oxygen and hence are of no warning
value.

Other oxygen deficiency detectors include portable oxygen indicators and

monitors.
A Russian portable detector uses the principle of oxidation of CU by O2 present in
sample air in the presence of ammonium chloride with excess ammonia. The
reduction in the volume of the air sample of oxidation and the consequent vacuum
created is indicated on the manometer which can be graduated in % of oxygen.

Note that, the frame safety lamp still serves as the most prevalent indicator of
oxygen deficiency.

1.3 Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxide of nitrogen consists of a mixture of nitrogen oxide NO, nitrogen dioxide

N2O, nitrogen Tetra oxide N2O4 and nitrogen penta-oxide N2O5. Among these
oxides, the most stable ones in the air are N2O and N2O4.

Nitrous fumes are very poisonous and soluble in water. Any person exposed to
these fumes show immediate symptoms of cough, nausea, chocking,
perspiration and headache, but later develops serious bronchial troubles such as
bronchitis and bronchopneumonia which may prove fatal within 48 hours.

1.3.1 Sources of oxides of nitrogen

 Nitro-glycerin explosives (dynamite, ammonia gelignite). Detonated AG may

produce 0.003m3 of nitrous fume per kg of explosive.
 Exhaust fumes of diesel engines

Test for nitrous fumes

Nitrous fumes are tested using a filter paper soaked in starch and potassium
iodide solution.
 There presence is indicated by change of colour of filter paper to blue and
liberation of iodide.
Tube - type detectors indicating the % of nitrous fumes by length of change in
colour in the tube.

A tolerable of concentration of nitrous fumes in the mine air is taken to be

0.00026%

1.4 Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide is gas without colour, taste and scent. It has a relative density
of 0.97, and a molecular mass of 28 at 0 degrees it has a solubility of 3.3 % Mass
of 1 litre of CO under normal conditions is 1.25 g.
CO burns and explodes when concentration in air reaches 12.5 to 75%. The
largest explosion occurs at 30 % concentration, producing temperature of about
630 to 810 degrees.
The gas is very poisonous, because the haemoglobin in the blood has 250 – 300
times greater affinity for CO forming Carboxy-haemoglobin than for oxygen forming
oxyhaemoglobin. Hence, if CO is breathed for a long time, the tissues, particularly
those of a brain, get damaged due to lack of O2.
As a result the patient suffers from headaque, nausea, overstraining of the heart,
mental disorder, loss of memory, paralysis, temporary blindness etc leading to
unconsciousness.

The first help that should be rendered to a person who has been poisoned by CO
is to put him in fresh air. It is usually difficult to recover from CO poisoning
because it leaves permanent tissue damage in the body.

In mines, allowable limit of CO is 0.0017%. However, the American conference of

Governmental industrial hygienist recommends that concentration of CO in the
mine should not exceed 0.005 %. This is the threshold value.

1.4.1 Sources of CO.

 Coal dust explosions
  Timber fire
 Exhaust gases of diesel locomotives
 Blasting works

1.4.2 Physiological effects of CO

0.02% - headache, palpitation (sensation of rapidly or irregularly beating heart)
and giddiness after 2hours;
0.1 % - Person falls unconscious after 1and half hours
0.4 % - leads to fatal incidents after a few minutes

1.4.3 Detection of CO
 Exposing a bird (canaries) or a mouse in a cage to the environment
containing the gas
 Using normal blood –This is achieved by drawing a sample of mine air
through a light straw coloured solution of blood. Presence of Co is
confirmed if the blood turns pink. Concentration of the gas is interpreted
by comparing the coloration produced with calibrated colour chart bearing
different concentration. This method is suitable for measuring gas
concentration in the range of 0.01 – 0.2 %.
By using detector tubes containing a suitable gel such as silica gel, alumina etc
which are impregnated with a chemical that reacts with CO to produce a colour
change (colorimetric effect).

Using a hopcalite detector

This is an analyzing cell which contains a specially prepared mixture of manganese
dioxide and copper oxide (MnO2 and CuO). This mixture is referred to as hopcalite.
For detection of CO in the sample of mine air, the air is passed into the cell by a
hand operated pump. In the process CO is oxidized by hopcalite and the rise in
temperature produced is recorded by thermocouple connected in series to a meter
which calibrated in % CO.
1.5 Carbon dioxide

This is a colourless and odourless gas with a specific gravity of 1.52. It is highly
soluble gas dissolving at 273 k, 197.7 %. that is water can absorb as much as 1.79
times its own volume of CO2. Mass of 1 litre of CO=1.96 g.

Carbon dioxide does not support combustion or life. The gas is slightly poisonous:
breathing air containing 2% of CO2 , increases the rate and depth of breathing. At
6% panting occurs and at 10 % produces a narcotic effect characterized by
headache, dizziness and sweating. However, if a person is exposed to 11 % of
C02, then death follow after a few hours of unconsciousness.

1.5.1 Sources of carbon dioxide

a) Engine exhaust
b) Explosive works
c) Exhalation – an average miner breaths out 0.05 0.06 m3 of CO2 per hour
d) Mine fires
e) Decay processes
f) Oxidation processes (eg. Coal)

Black dump

This is a term used by miners for a gaseous mixture of CO2 and nitrogen which is
used to extinguish lamp without causing any explosion or any marked toxic effects.
The % of CO2 in this mixture may vary from 5 to 90 %. The average composition
of black damp is 13 % CO2 and 87 % nitrogen.

After dump

This is air after methane or coal dust explosion. This air mainly contains CO 2 ,
some CO, CH2 and unused normal air.
A typical composition of after damp consists of 30 – 50 % residual air, 58 – 44 %
free nitrogen, 8- 4 % carbon dioxide and 4 – 2% carbon monoxide. After dump is
usually very poisonous due to presence of carbon monoxide.

Detection of carbon dioxide

 CO2 can be detected by passing it through lime water which turns milky. Its
presence can also be deduced from oxygen depletion indicated by the
extinguishing of oil lamps at 17 – 17.5 %.
 Using calorimetric detector tubes containing hydrazine (NH2NH2) and crystal violet.
Upon passing mine air, the presence of carbon dioxide is shown by length of tube
over which there is co lour change to bluish violet.
  By using portable CO2 analyser which uses a solid chemical absorbent of carbon
dioxide in a closed chamber.

1.6 Mine dust

Dust in mines is generated through various processes such as

 Drilling works
 Blasting works
 Extraction and hauling of ore
 Loading and unloading of ore
 Movement of various mining equipment, etc.

As a result of this dust, the mine air if further polluted while the mining environment
risks possible dust explosion as in coal and sulphide dust.

The airborne dust so produced creates a health hazardous environment for working
personnel. Hence a person exposed to silica and asbestos dust will suffer silicosis
and asbestosis respectively.

1.6.1 Silicosis

This disease is the most dangerous since it can affect people fatally and is
progressive in nature. The disease is characterized by development of modular
fibrosis tissue in the lung caused as a result of SiO2 dissolving in the lung fluid to
form silica acid.

Note: The latter stage of this disease is associated with tuberculosis infection.
disease has no cure.

1.6.2 Asbestosis

This disease is also caused by the presence of fibrous tissue believed to be as a

result of mechanical action of long asbestos fibers which get logged in the alveolar
walls causing morbid growth of fibrous tissue in the region. The progression of this
disease is faster than silicosis such that a person developing symptoms is likely to
die within five years of onset.

1.6.3 Coal Miner’s Pneumoconiosis

The disease is caused as a result of exposure to coal dust which finds its way into
the respiratory system and attacks the lung with its small bronchial and
surrounding arteries.
 Prolonged exposure to this dust leads to permanent alteration or destruction of
alveolar and scarring of lungs.

Dust Particle

Dust particle refers to the size of grain suspended in the mine air. It is this size
that mainly determines the tissue damage and dust explosibility.

Tissue damage is minimum or almost negligible to large particles because these

are usually trapped in the upper respiratory tract such as the large bronchi,
trachea, etc.

The opposite is true for small particles less than one micrometer or lesser size
which are capable of reaching the alveoli of the lung. Below is the figure (1)
showing the retention of mineral dust in human respiratory system.

From the diagram, it can be seen that maximum retention occurs for *** particles
whereas 0.25 μm particles have low retention.

The % of dust retention increases again for very fine particles (ultra fine). This is
because their deposition is mainly governed by Brownian motion and NOT
gravitational settling.

1.7 Concentration of Dust

Dust concentration can be defined

 Mass of dust per unit volume or g/m3

 Number of dust particles per unit volume N/m3 or
 Surface area of particles per unit volume A/m3

Since toxicity of silica dust is more closely associated with surface area of particles
than other parameter surface area, concentration per unit volume is used for
determining dust particle concentration, while others ***** concentration for measuring
coal dust concentration.

1.8 Dust sampling

DS is done to determine its concentration in mine air and work out effective
measures of preventing and suppressing it.

1.8.1 Filtration
 In order to filter dust, a lot of methods have been used which involve application of
soluble filters such as potassium nitrate and insoluble filters e.g. cotton wool.

Most of these filtering methods are not very efficient in that they allow a fair amount
of dust particles of respirable size to pass through.

In order to improve filtration efficiency synthetic membranes and paper thimbles

have been developed. They are capable of trapping very fine (ultra-fine) particles
down to 0.01μm.

1.8.2 Gravimetric Samplers

They are used for separating dust particles above and below respirable size. For
this purpose particles above respirable fraction are separated in an elutriator of
gravitational settling or cyclone while respirable size is collected on a membrane
or glass-size fibre paper filter.

Mass concentration is determined by weighing the filter before and after sampling.
Below

1.8.3 Sedimentation

One method used in dust sedimentation involves trapping mine air in a vertical
cylinder and allowing dust in it settle by gravity on to a glass slide placed at the
bottom of the cylinder.

In order to determine size and concentration of dust particles, the slide is placed
under the microscope.

1.8.4 Inertial Precipitation

The principles of dust sampling in inertial precipitation is based on impaction,

impingement and centrifuging. Konometer the most widely used instrument uses
impaction principle. It consists of a piston pump which in the process of operating
allows a certain volume of mine air to impinge (fall) on a glass slide which is coated
with dust correcting adhesive. This is followed by counting deposited dust under
a microscope.

The midget impinger and centrifugal instruments are based on principles of

impingement and centrifuging.

1.8.5 Thermal Precipitation

Thermal precipitation Works on the principle that when a body surrounded by dust
is heated, it produces a dust free zone around itself. The magnitude of this dust
 free zone depends on the temperature gradient between the hot body and
surrounding air.

If two glass cover ships are used to intercept this zone figure (2) and a current of
dust air allowed entering the space between them in the direction shown below,
dust from the air gets deposited on the cover ships at points A and B, where it
remains attached by molecular attraction.

For very small (microscopic particles) with relatively small temperature gradient
the velocity () of thermal precipitator, according to Davies is given by

3.6 x 106 d
 
 dx
 - Temperature in K and
d
- Temperature gradient in Km-1
dx

Fig. 2 Thermal precipitation of dust

1.8.6 Electrical Precipitation

Electrical precipitators consists of a charging wire maintained at high negative

potential of about 12 000 V and surround by an earthed concentric cylinder.

The air contaminated with dust is then drawn through the cylinder with the help of
the fan at a constant rate.
 In the process, the dust particles passing the instrument get charged and are
drawn to and precipitated on the inner surface of the earthed cylinder.

1.8.7 Optical Method

This method is based on the effects of suspended fine particles scattering light,
scattering angle and distance of the point of observation from the dust cloud.

Holographic System

Holographic system is used for counting and size analysis of dust cloud. This
instrument however, is not suitable for mine application because it can only register
particles above 3 micro metres.

For particles above 1 micro meter in diameter, the intensity of scattered light is
roughly given by the following expression.

Is
 KND 2
Io

Where

Is = Intensity of scattered light

Io = Intensity of incident light
N = Number of particles per unit volume
D = Diameter of particles
K = Constant depending on refractive index, absorption coefficient and shape of
the particles as well as wave length.

1.9 COAL DUST

Explosibility of coal dust depends on its size, concentration, humidity and presence
of other explosive and inert gases.

The most explosive coal dust contains particles of less than 0.1 – 0.06 micro metre.
However, on explosion of fine particles, large sizes of 0.75mm – 1mm may also
take part in this explosion.
The lower concentration unit of coal dust that can explode is in the range of 10 –
50 g/m3 while the upper limit can reach 2000 – 3000g/m3.

Highest explosion occurs at 300 – 400 g/m3.

Humidity of coal dust lowers its Explosibility properties such that at 40% no
explosion occurs.
1.9.1 Suppression and localisation of coal dust

Three methods are used for fighting possible coal dust explosions:

a) Reducing formation of dust and dustiness of air (e.g. Wetting coal, dust trapping
using different equipment devices, proper ventilation system).

b) Neutralization of dust explosive properties through wasting, spraying and lime

wash of mine openings and by use of water screens.

c) Elimination of possible ignition sources. This is achieved by observation of all

safety requirements for gas regime.

For mine openings with high rate of dust depositions, dust binding solutions such
as CaCl2 and a softening agent are used to consolidate it. In this case dust is first
sprayed with water mixed with a suitable wetting agent and then sprinkled over
with CaCl2. CaCl2 being hygroscopic, absorbs moisture from the air and keeps the
dust wet. Subsequent tramping by working personnel helps the dust to consolidate
further.

1.9. Suppression and Dilution of Air Borne Dust

There are two methods which are for suppression of air-borne dust namely:

 Wet suppression and

 Dry suppression

Wet suppression as already said, involves use of water for spraying and wetting
fine particles suspended in air. In order to achieve wetting of these particles it is
better to use fine atomized spray or mist sprays having droplets of about 60 μm
diameter.

1.10 Process of air cleaning

The following methods are commonly used for cleaning of air:

a) Gravitational cleaning
b) Scrubbing
c) Inertial cleaning
d) Filtration and electrical precipitation

1.10.1 Gravitational Method

Under this method (fig.3), mine air is led into a setting chamber where dust is
forced to settle down by gravity.

In order for this dust to settle down retention time in the chamber should be equal
to

t h
t

Where h = height of settling chamber

t = terminal settling velocity of the particle

At the same time

 hb
t  , s
Va Q

Where Va = Air velocity in the chamber, m/s

 = Length of chamber, m
b = Breadth of chamber, m
Q = Quantity of air flowing, m3/s

Simplifying the above equation we get

 hb

Va Q

Q
Therefore, hb  (1)
Va

h  Vt (2)
 Va

h
i.e. from t 
Vt


and t
Va

i.e. h  Vt
t V
a
 Fig. 3. Settling chamber

 Long cross section area to achieve laminar flow

 Breadth of chamber should be heavily equal to its height. b h
Suitable velocity 0.3 m/s to 1.5 m/s

Because of limited chamber (small chamber) there is an element of turbulent

flow. Therefore for about an eddy factor of 0.5 is multiplied by it.

 Settling chambers are suitable for large particles only

Example 1

A stream of contaminated mine air is drawn into a chamber at a rate of Q of 2.5

m3/s of what parameters of the settling chamber would be required to separate
quartz dust down to 45 μm taking the terminal settling velocity of 45 μm particles
in still air to be 0.15 m/s.

Solution

Actual velocity = Vt = 0.5 x 0.15 = 0.075 m/s (assuming Eddy factor of 0.5)

Let us assume Va = 0.3 m/s and h=b

From earlier equation (1) we have

Q
hb  h 2  Since h=b
Va
 2.5 m3 / s
=
0.3 m / s

h2  8.3 m2

h  2.8 App.

From equation (2)

h  Vt
 V
a

0.075  / c
=
0.3  / c

h
 0.25


 length of chamber

h 2.8
   14 m
0.25 0.25

1.10.2 Scrubbing

Uses the principle of wetting dust particles in order to enhance the separation by
gravitational and inertial means. Simple scrubbing method involves leading air in
a cylinder at its bottom and then spraying it.

1.10.3 Filtration

The mechanism of dust precipitation of filters is mainly by impingement and

diffusion, though electrostatic attraction may also play an important role.

It is worth noting that whereas filtering by diffusion is more important for very fine
particles at low velocities the opposite is the case for filtrations by impingement.

Filters include cloth, saw dust, flannel bag filters and metal shavings.
Filters made of saw dust and metal shavings are successfully used in Australian
mines.
 The efficiency of saw dust filters is initially low particularly for fine particles, but it
later increases to 90 – 100% after some few weeks of use.

1.10.4 Electrical Precipitation

These can be designed to handle large volumes of air since they permit an air
velocity of up to 1 m/s through them at a *** low resistance.

Electrical precipitation has a high efficiency of about 90% for part of all sizes
although they can be designed to work with an efficiency of 99.9% (cost is no
consideration).

1.10.5 Dust Masks

During mining operation a working personnel is expected to wear dust masks even
though they might cause a certain amount of discomfort. This is because a worker
who is working in close proximity to dust generating operation is exposed more to
dangerous concentration of dust.
2.0 MINE CLIMATE: SOURCES OF HEAT IN MINES

2.1 Auto compression in shafts and near vertical openings

Air entering the mine through the Shaft is compressed and heated as it flows
downward. Auto compression occurs when potential energy is converted to
thermal energy. If no interchange in the heat or moisture content of air takes place
in the shaft, the compression occurs adiabatically, with the attendant temperature
rise following the adiabatic law:

T1 = P2 (y-1)/y OR = V1 (y-1)
T2 P1 V2

Where T is an absolute dry bulb temperature, P is an atmospheric pressure, y=

cp/cv is ratio of the specific heats of air at constant volume and pressure, and the
subscripts I and 2 denotes initial and final conditions, respectively. Values of y are
1.402 for dry air and 1. 362 minimum for saturated; the exponent (y-1)/y thus
assumes values of 0.287 for dry air and approximately 0.266 for saturated. V-
specific volume (volume of unit mass of air)

Alternative rise in temperature due to auto –compression can also be obtained by

equating the potential energy with enthalpy change under the assumptions made
dQ=0 as no heat is transferred, dW=0 as no work is done and dKE= 0 as the flow
is non-accelerative so that dH = -dPE

Hg=∆H=Cp∆T

∆T = Rise in temperature, ∆H – Change in enthalpy, j/kg ; h= depth of shaft in

meters; Cp= specific heat of air in jkg-1 k-1 .
Environmental factors influencing the temperature of air delivered underground by
a shaft are:
 The effect of cooler nighttime are on the rock of lining of the shaft,
 Geothermal gradient of the rock, and
 Evaporation of moisture within the shaft which increases the latent heat and
wet bulb temperature while decreasing sensible heat and dry bulb
temperature of the air.

Seasonal variation in surface air temperature is also a factor. If the surface Air
temperature is high, a great amount of heat can be absorbed by the shaft walls
and therefore the temperature rise may not reach the adiabatic rate. The opposite
can also be true; when the air temperature is low, heat is taken from the shaft walls,
and the temperature increase is more than the adiabatic rate.

As well as increasing in temperature with depth, the down cast air increases in
density and decreases in specific volume. Thus ventilation air is compressed with
 depth and both the volume of air and available cooling power per volume are
reduced simultaneously as the mine requirements become greater with depth.

Auto compression – along with wall-rock heat- constitutes one of the principal
sources of heat in mines. It can of course , be removed from the mine cooling load
by locating the air conditioning plant underground , but heat addition to the air then
occurs prior to its entry into the plant. During exhaust to the surface in the up cast
shaft, the air temperature drops because of decompression by exactly the same
amount it increases during auto compression, but unfortunately, without benefit
to the air conditioning system.

2.2 Wall rock heat

2.2.1 Geothermal gradient

Heat from rocks generally increases with increase in mine depth. This rate of
increase in temperature with depth is called Geothermic/ geothermal gradient
In most climates, the so called virgin rock temperature ceases to be affected by
surface temperature changes and is taken as constant for reference purposes at
about (15m) beneath the surface. It then increases with depth at approximately a
uniform rate in a given locale, the rise being termed the geothermal gradient.

Because of different physical properties of rocks such as thermal conductivity,

density, specific heat which govern the rate of heat transfer in the rock, this
parameter usually vary in different places.

In Witwatersrand (SA)., the geothermal gradient is 1k /109.8 m while in Lancashire

coal fields, UK it is about 1k/34 m.

2.3 Heat transfer from rock to mine air

Heat transfer from rock to mine air is mainly by convection when rock surface is
dry and sensible and latent heat transfer.
Direct heat transfer from rock to mine air is governed by the rate of heat transfer
within the rock mass and the heat transfer within the wall of excavation to mine air.
The rate of sensible heat transfer from the rock wall to air is linear function of the
difference between temperature of the rock wall and the mean air temperature as
well as the coefficient heat transfer.

q=α (Ts - Ta )

q= rate of heat transfer, i.e. the amount of heat flow per unit area per unit time.
α - Coefficient of heat transfer (thermal emmisitivity) taking into account
properties of rock surface, moisture contents, temperature and velocity of
air as well as size of air ways.
TS, Ta - Temperature of rock wall/surface and air respectively

Value of α can be predicted from the following expression

St.Pr2/3 = ƒ/8 [1]

St- stranton number

St = α/CpG= α/CpρV

Specific heat of air at mean air temperature.

G = Mass velocity =ρV

V- Average velocity of flow

Pr= ( μ Cp/K)F

Ka – Thermal conductivity of air

μ - Viscosity of air
ƒ - Darcy –weisbarch resistance coefficient of the air way.

F- Subscript denoting the values of the arithmetic average of the surface and mean
air temperatures usually referred as film temperatures.

Taking Pr. O.72 for prevalent mine temperature,

Equation [1] reduces to

α =ƒ CpρV/6.4

Heat transfer from the wall rock to the ventilation air in a mine opening is unsteady
and complex. Initially, when the opening is being advanced in flow into mine is very
high rate. The layer of rock adjacent to the opening cools to essentially (within 1 to
3 F or 0.6 to 1.7c0 of) the temperature of the air in the opening, retarding heat
transfer. But in mechanized mining, with rapidly advancing workings, heat flow
remains high at the face were the greatest number of miners is exposed.

To minimize the heat flow from rock to air, it is essential that (1) the length of
airways and (2) the temperature differential between rock and air be kept to
absolute minima. The design and lay out of the air –conditioning plant and mine
plant with regard to operating temperatures and distance are thus critical. Another
key factor is moisture, which if present exacerbates heat transfer by lowering heat
transfer resistance at the interface and lowering air dry bulb temperatures. In
addition to wall rock heat flow, there is also a heat addition from the rock broken in
mining. It may be substantial up to 60% of the total rock inflow into an airway,
 especially in high production bulk mining. The heat flow from broken rock can be
approximated, knowing the volumetric heat capacity of the muck and the
temperature difference.

2.4 Ground water

All groundwater especially that from hot fissures and natural rock reservoirs, is a
prolific source of heat in mine workings. Since the water and heat both are derived
from the surrounding rock or geothermal sources, the water temperature will
approach or even exceed that of the rock. The water transfers its heat to the mine
air during evaporation.

Even greater amounts of latent heat may be added to the mine air through
evaporation of service water supplied for drilling and wetting down and of drainage
water from filling operations, which is also heated by the rock. The addition of heat
from this source in hot mines may be substantial since the water is warmed by the
rock waters in contacts. As a result, careful control over the flow of service water
as well as groundwater is necessary in hot mines.

2.5 Machinery and lights

Nearly all the energy consumption of machinery underground adds heat to the
mine air, since the power losses and most of the work done are converted directly
to heat or indirectly to heat through friction. This is true of electrical, compressed-
air, or internal combustion machinery, although compressed –air machines also
exhibit a local cooling effect at discharge

2.6 Human metabolism

The body’s waste heat is continually being rejected by heat transfer processes.
The result is an increase in both the sensible and latent heat content of mine air in
small to moderate amounts.

2.7 Oxidation

Oxidation process involving the mineral, backfill, and timber in mines contribute
heat o the mine air. In coal mines, under unusual circumstances, it is reported that
this source may constitute 80% of the total lord. In ore mines, having a high sulfide
content, the additional of heat may also be considerable particularly in filled stops
were timber, setting cement, and /or sulfides are present, heat liberation may be
intensive to cause spontaneous combustion and to constitute a fire hazard, raising
the air temperature many degrees. Spontaneous combustion and fire when they
occur underground, generate inordinate amounts of heat and if, not extinguished
or controlled promptly have disastrous consequences on the mine atmosphere and
human life.
2.8 Blasting

Blasting on occasion can be a significant source of heat. If the blasting can be

done on shift especially in developing openings, the ventilation heat gain locally is
considerable. The exact amount of heat added top the mine air can not be
calculated directly, since most is probably absorbed by the rock.

2.9 Rock movement

Movement of ground due to geologic causes or mining subsidence is another heat

source that is difficulty to quantify. Caving or collapse of waste or ore in stops or
abandoned areas is the most common cause of heat liberation due to ground
movement.

2.10 Pipelines

Lines carrying drainage water are frequently hotter than the mine air and thus
contribute some heat. If the water they are carrying is warm enough to add
significantly to the cooling load, consideration should be given to insulating the
lines. Drainage water is usually the only warm water that is found in underground
pipelines. Service water and sand fill – slurry water are normally at or slightly below
drift air temperature.

2.11 Physiological effects of heat and humidity

Man generates most of the heat through the process of metabolism. Most of this
heat has to be got rid of in order to maintain the normal body temperature.

This heat is dissipated from the surface of the skin by radiation, convection and
evaporation and a little part through exhaled air. However, below 298 K or less the
heat transfer from the skin to air is mainly by radiation and convection. However,
as temperature rises above 298 k, The heat transfer to the skin becomes faster as
the blood vessels becomes dilated ensuring lager blood circulation to the skin. At
temperature above 302 k the sweat grands start functioning a heat transfer from
the skin is mainly by evaporation.

2.12 Heat transfer from man

a) High weight bulb temperature.

HWT leads to reduction in rate of cooling. This reduction is rate of cooling
results in rise in temperature.
b) Acclimatization – (e.g. First physiological effects response of a human body
to very hot and humidity atmosphere is the dilation of blood vessels)
c) Air velocity aids cooling but may create comfortable condition in relation to
dust generation.
 d) Heat stroke – results from the break down in temperature regulating
mechanism.
e) Changes in cardio-vascular system. Under hot and humidity conditions more
blood is supplied to the skin and hence the cardiac rate and out put increase
so much. This may read increase in blood pressure resulting in heart failure.

2.13 Temperature reduction in mines

Despite the fact that in modern mines distances from ventilation shafts to stoping
areas is measured in Kms and that the temperature in working faces is close to
temperatures of rock, the seasonal fluctuation of temperature of outer air, all the
same affects temperature of air in working faces, which in cold countries in winter
could be 3-4C lower than in summer.

Even day temperature fluctuations can be felt in underground mine openings and
at distance of about 2.9 k from rim of ventilation shaft can reach about 2-23oC and
at 3.5 km 0.8-0.9C.

Therefore, in designing deep mines, it is very necessary to carry out heat

calculations in order to determine expected temperature of air in underground
circuit of mine openings more especially in exploitation and development openings,
and also in order to establish the necessity of artificial cooling of air and magnitude
of this cooling.

In order to reduce temperature of air in deep mines, mining technical measures or

artificial cooling of air with help of refrigeration machines are done.

Mining Technical Measures include:

Reducing intensity of heating ventilation currents by increasing its speed in mine

openings

Refusal of wide application of wooden support, because its decomposition

Process contributes to temperature increase

Using heat/insulating methods or materials against wall in mine openings and

water canals/gutters

Removal of heat from heating generating mechanism and dumping it immediately

in return air way.

However, the most efficient and reliable method of reducing temperature of mine
air is by using refrigeration equipment. This equipment can be installed centrally,
i.e. serving the entire mine; grouply serving only certain parts or section of mines
or locally for one or two exploitation and development faces.
3.0 FOUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

3.1 Main Laws, understanding and definition.

Gas laws – Although these laws are correct for the hypothetical ideal gases, they
are sufficiently accurate for normal air.

Boyle’s Law – The volume of specific volume of a gas V is inversely proportional

to absolute pressure P @ constant temperature

P1V1=P2V2

In the case of normal air, P is the obsolete partial pressure of either dry or water
vapour.

Charle’s Law – At constant pressure, the volume or specific volume of a gas is

directly proportional to the obsolete temperature T

V1 T1

V2 T2

Alternatively stated, @ constant volume, the obsolete pressure of a gas is directly

proportional to the obsolete temperature.

P1 T1

P2 T2

General combined gas law

P1 P
V1 = 2 V2
T1 T2

Or

PV=RT

Where R- is constant

Dalton’s Law

The total pressure P exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of partial
pressures of individual gases. For normal air, the barometric (total) pressure Pb is
 Pb  Pa  PV

3.2 Physical properties of air (specific weight, density, viscosity)

Specific weight of air: Weight of air per unit volume

G
 
V

Where G = weight of air,

V = volume m3

Specific Weight can be expressed as = ρ g (2)

Where γ = specific weight (kN/m3)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

Specific volume of air: Volume occupied by 1 kg of air

1
V1 


1
Hence  
V1

Specific weight of air in the mines changes depending on depth of these mines
and temperature of air.

At 760 mm height of mercury, specific weight of dry air at 0C is 1.293. At -50oC
1,53

3.3 Density of air: mass of substance air per unit volume

m
 , kg / m3
V

or

 Kg s 2
 ,
g m3

Weight of air = V
3.4 Viscosity

A fluid is said to be viscous when it offers resistance to its own motion past a solid
body or through it of any solid body.

3.4.1 Dynamic Viscosity of Air

It is the property of air to offer resistance of shear stresses (force) being formed
between layers of air, moving parallel each other with different speeds.

In gases the viscous force arises as a result of the interchange of molecules that
take place between the different layers of the following gas. Hence whenever
molecules move from a fast flowing layer into a more slowly moving layer, they
increase the average speed of that layer.

At the same time, the random molecular motion means that molecules from the
slower moving area layer move into the faster moving area thereby reducing the
average molecular speed.

3.4.2 Coefficient of viscosity

It is a measure of the degree to which the fluid exhibits viscous effects. The higher
the coefficient of viscosity, the more viscous is the fluid. The coefficient of viscosity
of liquids, decrease with increasing temperature, whereas those of gases increase
with increasing temperature.

Refer to the diagram 1:

According to Newton, the Friction Force F between the layers is proportional to A

dV
and the velocity gradient
dy

dV
i.e. F  A
dy
Figure 4. Fluid flow

Note: In solids the friction force between the surfaces of two solids is independent
of the area constant and of the relative velocity.

Introducing a constant of proportionality, μ, we have

dv
F A
dy

F
 
   A
F
But  Shear stress
dv A
dy

The constant μ – coefficient of viscosity.

 Ns m2  Kgm1s 1 


Usually kinematic viscosity they used when solving dynamic problems  


The kinematic viscosity  depends on temperature T and density of air and

therefore, can also be determined from the following expression:
  1.75  10 4 1  0.00278 
1


3.5 Pressure of Air - Intensity of forces with which air acts  on a surface
placed in it..
 Barometric Pressure (Atmospheric) of air

P = Sum of partial pressures of dry air and vapour

P = Pdry air + Pvapour

Normal Atmospheric Pressure P = 101325 Pa

3.6 Flow of Air

When air flows in a mine opening it has to do some frictional work as a result
of which a part of its pressure energy is converted to entropy energy.

Below is a general energy balance for a small section of the system for unit
mass of air.

dQ  dW  dH  dPE  dKE

dQ - heat added to or removed from the section (from outside the system)
dW - external work done on or by the fluid in the section (e.g. work done
by a fan in moving air or by compressed-air running a motor
dH - change in Enthalpy of the fluid across the section
dPE – change in PE of fluid across the section gdh
dKE – change in kinetic energy of the fluid across the section =
V 2 
d    vdv
 2 
g – acceration due to gravity
h – Elevation of the fluid and
V = velocity of fluid

[This equation holds for frictional or frictionless flow; For

compressible or incompressible flow].

Taking

i.e. enthalpy comprises of a useful “pressure” energy component VdP and

a useless “entropy” energy component volume of fluid and that Tds = dQ +
dF

where dF = Frictional work.

The initial equation takes this form

 -dW = VdP + dPE + dKE + dF

If no external work is don in dW = 0

Then the equation becomes

VdP + dF + dPE + dKE = 0

Integrating between the boundaries 1 and 2 of the system

V22  V12
2
  VdP  F1 2  g h2  h1  
1 2

If within a pressure change the mine air is considered to be incompressible

V becomes constant:

V22  V12
V P1  P2   F1 2  g (h2  h1  
2

3.6.1 Turbulent flow

This refers to disorderly flow of a liquid. In this type of flow the speed and
direction of the fluid particles passing any point vary with time.

3.6.2 Line of flow

The path followed by a particle of the fluid is called the line of flow of the
particle.

3.6.3 Laminar flow

This is a special case of steady flow in which the velocities of all particles on any
given streamline are the same, though the particles of different streamlines may
move at different speeds as shown below:
 Fig.4. Streamline of a liquid in laminar flow. Velocities V1 V2 and V3 are not
necessarily equal.

Incompressible fluid

A fluid in which changes in pressure produce no change in the density of a fluid is

called incompressible fluid. Both liquid and gases can be taken to be
incompressible.

3.4 Equation of continuity

If the fluid is undergoing a steady flow, then the mass of a fluid which enters one
end of the tube of flow must be equal to the mass that leaves at the other end
during the same time fig. 9.

Ax, Ay – cross section areas of the tube at x and y respectively.

x, y – densities of the fluid at X and Y respectively.

Vx, Vy – the velocities of the fluid particles at X and Y respectively.

In the time interval t , the fluid at X will move forward at a distance Vx t

 Fig. 5 Fluid flow through different areas

Therefore, a volume of Ax Vx  t will enter the tube at X

The mass of fluid entering at X in time  t will therefore be

Mass  Volume    Ax Vx t  x

Similarly, the mass leaving at Y in the same time will be

Ay Vy t  y

Since m1  m2
Then

Ax Vx t  x  Ay Vy t  y

AX VX  X  AY VY Y - This is the equation of continuity for an incompressible liquid

of  x   y and therefore, the equation takes the form of

AX VX  AY VY
AX VX = flow rate or volume flux.