MINE AIR

The atmosphere, which has a remarkably

constant composition over whole of the
earth’s surface is comprised principally of
two gases, oxygen and nitrogen with small
traces of carbon dioxide, moisture and rare
gases such as argon, neon, helium,
krypton, xenon. The air on the intake side
of a working district usually have
composition similar to that of the
atmospheric air but the return air might
have a different composition.
 Composition of pure, dry,
atmospheric air
Gas Percentage by Percentage by
volume weight

Oxygen 20.93 23.02

Nitrogen 78.10 75.5
Carbon Dioxide 0.03 0.04
Argon and other 0.94 1.44
inert gases

Total 100.00 100.00

Nitrogen percentage in a body of dry
air
For the purpose of mine ventilation, we
can group the inert gases with nitrogen as
they behave in a similar manner. Hence,
the percentage of nitrogen in dry air can
be taken to be 79.04 (78.10+0.94) percent
by volume and 76.94 percent by weight.
 Properties of the main constituents of air
Oxygen (O2)-
1.0 Colourless, tasteless, odourless.
2.0 Slightly soluable in water (one hundred
volume of water can dissolve three volumes of
oxygen).
3.0 Slightly heavier than air (sp. gravity-
1.105)
4.0 Strongly paramagnetic
5.0 It is not combustible but supports
combustion.
Oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange
Oxygen is essential in metabolic process. During
breathing, air enters the lungs and passes to the
air cells or alveoli where interchange of carbon
dioxide from the blood with oxygen from the air
takes place. The oxygen rich blood is circulated
from the lungs to the different parts of the body
where it looses the oxygen and picks up carbon
dioxide and again returns to the lungs through the
veins. Only about one fourth of the oxygen
inhaled is diffused into the blood and the rest is
exhaled out along with the nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and water vapour.
 Respiratory quotient
The ratio of the volume of carbon
dioxide expired and the volume of
oxygen consumed is called Respiratory
quotient. It generally varies between
0.80-0.95.
The amount of air breathed by a man,
the amount of oxygen consumed and the
respiratory quotient depend on his state
of mascular activity.
 Physiological effect of oxygen deficiency (in the
absence of other toxic gases)

Oxygen content (percentage by vol) Effect

17% Faster and deeper breathing

15% Dizziness, buzzing in ears, rapid hear

beat
13% May loose consciousness if exposure
is prolonged
9% Fainting, unconsciousness

7% Life endangered

6% Convulsive movements, death

 Anoxia
The medical term for lack of oxygen in the
body is known as anoxia. If anoxia develops
slowly, the brain is affected first and the
senses become dull. Thereafter, mascular
control is affected, especially the lower
limb, the vision is blurred and one may
collapse without prior warning. The person
should be immediately moved to a fresh air
area and artificial respiration started.
 Causes of oxygen deficiency in mine air
The different causes of oxygen deficiency in mine
air are-
1.0 dilution of oxygen by addition of strata
gases such as methane and carbon dioxide.
2.0 Breathing of persons
3.0 Oxidation of coal , mine fires and
explosions.
4.0 Burning of fuel in flame safety lamp and
diesel engines
5.0 Absorption by ground water, which has
previously been partially depleted of its oxygen
content
 Regulatory condition

A place in a mine shall not be

deemed to be in a safe state for
persons to work or pass therein if
the air contains less than 19
percent of oxygen.
Detection of low oxygen percentage
1.0 The flickering of the flame and
diminution of light of a flame safety lamp
provides indication of low oxygen percentage.
Each one percent drop in the oxygen content
reduces the light from a flame safety lamp by
about 30% and the lamp gets extinguished at
about 17% of oxygen.
2.0 Multigas detector- It provides digital
reading of the oxygen content in the air.
 Properties of the main constituents of air
Nitrogen (N2)-
Along with the other inert gases, it constitutes 79.04 percent
by volume of the mine air.
1.0 Colourless, odourless and tasteless
2.0 slightly soluble in water (1.5 volume in 100 volume of
water)
3.0 slightly lighter than air ( sp. Gravity 0.97)
4.0 Inactive gas, is non-inflammable and supports neither
life nor combustion.
5.0 No physiological effect on men or animals and it merely
acts as a diluent of the oxygen in the atmosphere.
 mine gases
1.0 Nitrogen
2.0 Oxygen
3.0 Methane
4.0 Carbon dioxide
5.0 Carbon monoxide
6.0 Hydrogen sulphide
7.0 Hydrogen
8.0 Radon
9.0 Ammonia
10.0 Aldehydes
 Firedamp
Inflammable gases emitted
from the strata of coal whose
principal is methane (CH4).
 Blackdamp

It is a mixture of carbon dioxide and

nitrogen in excess of their percentages in
ordinary air. The composition of the
blackdamp depends mainly upon the
manner of its formation. Blackdamp is
commonly met with ill-ventilated dip
workings , sealed off old workings and
goaves. The goaf edges in depillaring areas
are often invaded by blackdamp from the
goaf with fall in barometric pressure.
Calculation of Blackdamp composition in
mine air
The mine air is first analysed for the various
constituents and then the amount of normal
air present is determined on the basis of the
oxygen content of the sample. Next step is
to calculate the excess carbon dioxide and
nitrogen, which together constitute
Blackdamp. The other gases present such as
methane, carbon monoxide etc. are
excluded from the calculation.
 Calculation of Blackdamp composition in
mine air
Ex. The results of analysis of a sample of mine air is given below:
Oxygen -19.79%, Nitrogen-79.07%, carbon dioxide- 0.33%, carbon monoxide- 0.01%,
methane-0.8%. Calculate the amount of blackdamp in the air and its composition.
Answer-
Normal air contains 79.04% Nitrogen, 20.93% Oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide by
volume.
Hence the amount of nitrogen corresponding to 19.79% of oxygen= 79.04/20.93 *
19.79= 74.73%.
The amount of carbon dioxide corresponding to 19.79% oxygen= 0.03/20.93 * 19.79=
0.028%.
Hence excess Nitrogen= 79.07-74.73=4.34%
Excess carbon dioxide= 0.33-0.028=0.30%
Amount of blackdamp in the sample= 4.34+0.30=4.64
Therefore, the composition of blackdamp is
Carbon dioxide= 0.30/4.64 *100= 6.47%
Nitrogen=4.34/4.64 *100= 93.53%
 Afterdamp
It is a mixture of gases present in the
mine air after an explosion. The bulk of
the mixture in Nitrogen but almost
invariably contains carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane,
hydrogen and oxygen. A typical
composition of afterdamp may contains
CO-1.5%, CO2 -8%, O2 – 5%, CH4 – 0.3%,
H2 – 0.2%, N2 – 85%
 Whitedamp

It is a mixture of carbon monoxide

and air
 Stinkdamp

It is a mixture of Hydrogen sulphide

and air
Properties of the main constituents
of air
Carbon dioxide (CO2)-
1.0 Highly soluble in water (100 volume
of water can dissolve 180 volume of carbon
dioxide at 0 degree centigrade.
2.0 Tasteless, odourless, colour less
3.0 neither burns nor supports
combustion.
Effects of CO2 concentration on men
and flame safety lamp
% of CO2 in Effect on mankind Effect on flame
atmosphere safety lamp
0.03 Normal Normal

0.5 Slight increase in depth and frequency of No effect

breathing
1.00 Much deeper breathing No effect

3.00 Breathing rate is doubled, quick fatigue Burns with

when working difficulty
6.00 Violent panting and rapid exhaustion Flame
extinguished
10.00 Unconsciousness if exposure is prolonged
25.00 Death within a few hours
 Sources of carbon dioxide
1.0 Breathing of persons working in the mine
2.0 Slow oxidation of coal (from strata,
through blowers)
3.0 Burning of flame safety lamp
4.0 exhaust of internal combustion engines
5.0 Decay of timber etc.
6.0 Mine fires and explosion
 Accumulation and detection of
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide being heavier than air usually
accumulates in the dip workings of a mine. Before
entering any dip workings which is poorly ventilated or
with stagnant air, preliminary test for the presence of
carbon dioxide should be carried out with a flame safety
lamp. The flame of FSL gets extinguished at 3-4% of CO2.
The increase in the % of Carbon dioxide is usually
accompanied by the deficiency of Oxygen. Carbon
dioxide can also be detected if limewater is available as it
turns milky in the presence of CO2. The are detector
tubes for measuring the concentration of carbon dioxide.
Properties of the main constituents of
air
Carbon Monoxide- (CO)-
1.0 Colourless, tasteless, odourless
2.0 slightly lighter than air (sp. Gravity 0.967)
3.0 Slightly soluble in water (100 vol of
water dissolves 2.3 vol of CO).
4.0 Burns with light blue flame but does not
support combustion.
5.0 Forms explosive mixture with air when
present within limits of 12% to 74%.
 Physiological effects of Carbon
monoxide
1.0 Extremely poisonous
2.0 It combines with haemoglobin
in the blood to form carboxy-
haemoglobin. The affinity of
haemoglobin for carbon monoxide is
250 times greater than oxygen.
Physiological effects of Carbon monoxide

Concentration of CO in air in Effect

ppm
50 No effect. TLV (Threshold
value limit).
200 Headache after 2 hours of
working
400 Headache and discomfort
after 45 minutes of working
1200 Palpitation after 10 minutes of
working
2000 Unconsciousness after 10
minutes of working
 Characteristics of CO poisoning
A characteristics of CO poisoning is bright
cherry red colour of the victim which is not the
case with other types of poisoning. This is
because of the bright cherry red colour of the
compound carboxy-haemoglobin. The victim
should be lifted from the affected area, kept in
a warm area, and artificial respiration with
pure oxygen should be given. Generally a
prolonged treatment is required. If the blood
has been saturated to a very high percentage,
death may occur even after the patient has
regained consciousness.
 Colorimetric CO detector
The apparatus consists of an aspirator bulb with inlet and
outlet part, with arrangement for non-return valve. The
glass tubes (detector tubes) used are of 6mm diameter,
120-130mm long. The indicating chemical (yellow silica gel
impregnated with palladium sulphate & ammonium
molybdate) is about 10-12mm long, kept between two dry
slugs of silica gel (to prevent effect of moisture). When
required for detection, the tips of the sealed tube is broken
and a known amount of mine air is drawn through the tube
at controlled rate by squeezing the aspirator bulb. The
original colour of silico-molybdate chages to green and then
blue (the colour of oxides of molybdenum), depending on
the percentage of CO present in the sample. The
%(concentration) of CO is then obtained by comparing this
colour with a standard colour chart provided by the
manufacturer.
Detection of concentration of CO
By noting the colour change in one squeeze, CO
in the range of 0.005-0.1% can be determined
and by squeezing 5 times, the concentration of
up to 0.001% can be determined. Nitrogen
dioxide, if present above 7 ppm, may bleach
the colour and thus hamper in determination of
the concentration . Thus detector tubes should
not be used for detection of CO immediately
after blasting when the concentration of NOX .
 Why should CO detector tubes not be used
for detection of CO immediately after blasting

CO detector tubes work on the principle of

change in the colour of silico- molybdate from
yellow (original) to green and then blue on the
basis of colour of oxides of molybdenum.
Oxides of Nitrogen are released after blasting
and Nitrogen dioxide if present in excess of
7ppm has the property of bleaching the colour
produced and thereby leading to error in the
determination of the concentration of CO.
Use of birds for warning against high
concentration of CO
Before the advent of detector tubes or digital
monitors, small birds, mainly ‘lal muniya’ or canary
birds were taken in cages into the below ground
workings. When the birds showed distress or fell
off the perch, the work persons were required to
be withdrawn from such places as it indicated
about 0.15% of CO. However, it does not always
give proper symptom. For example at 500 ppm , a
person working for four to five hours may become
unconscious though the bird might no show any
distress.
 CO detectors

Modern CO detectors use detector tubes

containing suitable gel such as alumina,
silica gel, pumice stone etc. impregnated
with a chemical which reacts with the CO of
the mine to produce a colour change. He
estimation of the percentage of CO can be
done by matching the colour produced with
a standard chart of known percentage or
noting the length of the tube over which the
change of colour has occurred.
 Reading of detector tubes
The evaluation of the indication on the Tube is another
important factor to be taken into consideration. The following
are guidelines for interpreting the indication: - continuously
observe the tube during the measurement - evaluate the
indication immediately following the measurement according
to the instructions for use - use sufficient lighting - light
background - compare with an unused tube Observing the
tube during the measurement is particularly important to
make sure that a complete discoloration of the tube has not
happened without being realised. This complete discoloration
can sometimes occur abruptly with high concentrations even
during the course of the first stroke. A sufficient lighting source
is necessary. However, direct sunlight should be avoided
because the UV-radiation of the sun may cause a change in the
discoloration. Since such a change can sometimes occur even
after a longer period of time.
 Reading of detector tubes
The reading of the tube must be done immediately following the
measurement. Also, keeping the used tube as proof is not useful in
most cases, because even tubes which have been sealed with rubber
caps will show a change in the indication over time. A light
background (white paper) is very helpful, in improving the readability
of the discoloration. When there is no source of ambient lighting the
reflector of a switched-on flashlight will suffice. The comparison of a
used tube with an unused one is yet another way to more accurately
evaluate the discoloration. In all cases the entire length of the
discoloration must be read. This means the sum of all colors (e. g.
carbon monoxide tubes produce light brownish green discolorations).
It must also be pointed out that an individual's perception of a
particular color or intensity of a color is somewhat subjective. It is
possible, for example, that one person calls a color light brown
whereas another person calls the same color brown. These deviations
in the individual perception of color or sense of color should not be
overemphasised unless color blindness is an issue.
 Reading of detector tubes
When reading the concentration on a scaled tube, three different
situations can be encountered: - the colour indication ends at a
right angle to the tube's longitudinal axis - the colour indication is
oblique to the tube's longitudinal axis - the end of the colour
indication becomes very diffuse When the colour indication is at a
right angel to the tube's longitudinal axis. the concentration can
be read directly against the scale (see example 1). If the colour
indication is oblique (i. e. runs in a slanting direction to the tube’s
longitudinal axis), then a long and a short discoloration can be
observed. In this case the average reading indicates the
concentration (see example 2). If the colour indication become
progressively diffuse, the end of the discoloration may be difficult
to evaluate. In this case the final edge of the discoloration has to
be read at the point where a faint discoloration is just visible
Functional capability of pumps
To help ensure precise measurement results, it is particularly
important to confirm that the pump is operating properly. Short-
term pumps should be checked before each measurement for
leaks and suction capacity according to the operating manual. In
addition, after a measurement short-term pumps should be
flushed with clean air by performing several strokes without a
Tube in the pump. This purges the pump of reaction products
which enter the bellows due to the reaction in the tube.
Quick test to check bellows pump for leaks-For quick test to
evaluate the suction capacity of the bellows pump, Insert an
unopened Dräger-Tube and squeeze the pump completely. After
releasing the position of the pump body should not change within
one minute. Squeeze the pump completely without any tube.
After releasing, the pump must open instantly
 Properties of sulphuretted hydrogen-
H2S
• It is also known as stink damp. Smells like rotten
egg.
• It is slightly heavier than air (sp. Gr 1.17)
• Soluble in water (1 vol of water dissolves 2 ½ vol
of H2S at 293K.
• Burns with light blue flame (explosive mixture at
4.3%-45.5% with air).
• Extremely poisonous (0.1-0.3% can lead to rapid
paralysis of respiratory centre leading to asphyxia
and death).
 Occurrence of H2S
• Rarely found in mine air- more common in
metal mines (due to action of acid water on
pyrites) than in coal mines. Sometimes occurs
in blowers, fires of sulphurous coal, rotting of
timber in water. It may remain dissolved in
stagnant water, being released on slight
disturbance.
 Properties of Nitrous fumes (NO2).
• It generally consists of Nitrous Oxide (N2O-colourless, also known as
laughing gas, very minute quantity), Nitric Oxide (NO-colourless, insoluble,
less poisonous ), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4
colourless). NO2 is reddish brown in colour with a pungent smell.
• Highly soluble (NO2) in water and effectively diluted and removed by
water spraying.
• Very poisonous (NO2) and show symptoms like cough, nausea, choking,
perspiration and headache. Higher concentration could lead to bronchitis
and bronchopneumonia that may prove fatal in 48 hours. Sometimes,
pulmonary damage to the lungs may continue unnoticed initially and after
4-6 hours the affected person may start coughing.
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
• It is colourless, suffocating gas
• Much heavier than air
• Highly soluble in water (1 vol of water
dissolves 40 vol of SO2
• Found in minute quantities in afterdamp in
some coal mines.
 Firedamp- Methane- CH4
• Colourless, odourless, tasteless.
• Lighter than air (sp.gravity 0.559). It has
tendency to accumulate in cavities in the roof
level of workings.
• Very slightly soluble in water (100 vol disolves
3.3 vol).
• Burns with blue flame CH4+2O2=CO2+2H2O.
 Explosive limits of CH4
• The combustion of methane in air can be expressed as
• CH4+2(O2+4N2)=CO2+2H2O+8N2
From the above equation, it can be seen that the proper oxygen
balance occurs when the methane content in the air in one-
eleventh or 9.5% by volume. Due to the above fact, this
combination forms the most explosive mixture of methane in air.
In normal air, methane concentration up to 5% will not lead to any
explosion though the mixture can burn. Also, any concentration
above 14%, it does not form explosive mixture as the excess
methane absorbs a substantial amount of heat (Sp. Heat of
methane is 2.47kJ/kg/K compared to 0.96 kJ/kg/K) and decomposes
to C2H2 and H2. At such high concentrations, the oxygen content of
air becomes too low for complete combustion and methane burns
producing CO and H2.
CH4+O2=CO+H2+H2O.
 Effects of Oxygen and other gases on
limits of explosibility of methane.
The effect of the percentages of oxygen in air on
the limits of explosibility is methane is best
detailed in Coward Diagram. In the instance of
deficiency of O2, no explosion of methane is
possible below 12% of O2 with whatever be the
concentration of CH4. Presence of inert gases like
CO2, N2 will narrow down the limits of
explosibility. The limits expand with presence of
other combustible gases such as ethane,
hydrogen etc. The lower limit of explosibility of
methane reduces to 3% with presence of 5gm/m3
of dust.
 Lag on ignition

• The most characteristics of the ignition of methane is

the delay between the ignition and the application of
heat sourced, which is termed as ‘Lag on ignition’. This
is because methane starts dissociating and burning
only after absorbing a certain quantity of heat. The lag
on ignition falls with rise in temperature of the source
of ignition from 10 second at 923K to only about 1
second at 1273K. It also falls with increasing pressure
but to a lesser degree. The presence of hydrogen or
other combustible gases reduces the lag on ignition so
much that at the presence of 30% H2 , the lag on
ignition is completely eliminated.
 Migration of methane
• Methane occurs in coal or in adjacent strata mainly
adsorbed on the surface of the coal and partly diffused
in the coal. Coal has low porosity (8-10% mostly but
sometimes reaching up to 30%) and the pores are very
fine offering large surface area for adsorption. Though
microcracks and fissures provide escape of the gases,
slow migration does take place by permeation through
micropores and microcleavages. Methane also
migrates in the adsorbed state along the pore surfaces
till it reaches the low pressure zone where it ultimately
gets desorbed. Geological structures like faults and
joints often provide major channels for gas migration.
 Coward Triangle method
• Coward represented graphically the
relationship between composition of
methane-air mixture and inflammability
limits. The diagram representing the same is
known as Coward’s diagram. Generally, after
sampling the related sample of mine air, the
same is plotted in the coward’s diagram to
ascertain its explosibility.
Interpretation of Coward’s diagram
• The point A on the diagram represents ordinary
atmospheric air. The line AD would intersect the abscissa at
100% methane.
• The point B represents the lower limit of inflammability of
methane (5% of methane).
• The point C represents the upper limit of inflammability
(14%).
• The line BE is the lower limit of inflammability and CE the
higher limit of inflammability.
• The point E is the minimum percentage of Oxygen required
for the mixture to be explosive. As the oxygen content falls,
BE and CE approach each other until they meet at E.
Interpretation of Coward’s diagram
• Draw a tangent AE to the curve BEC and extend
AE to meet at F.
• F is the point representing the upper limit of
inflammability of methane.
• If the composition of any sample is represented
by any point G in the area DCEF, then the line GA
represents the composition of the mixture as it is
diluted with air. Thus when this line passes
through the area BEC, the moisture would
become explosive.
 Gassy seam of First Degree
• Gassy seam of First degree means a coal seam or
part thereof lying within the precincts of a mine
not being an opencast working whether or not
inflammable gas is actually detected in the
general body of the air at any place in its
workings belowground, or when the percentage
of the inflammable gas, if and when detected, in
such general body of air does not exceed 0.1 and
the rate of emission of such gas does not exceed
one cubic meter per tonne of coal produced.
 Gassy seam of Second Degree
• Gassy seam of Second degree means a coal
seam or part thereof lying within the precincts
of a mine not being an opencast working in
which the percentage of the inflammable gas
in the general body of air at any place in the
workings of the seam is more than 0.1 or the
rate of emission of inflammable gas per tonne
of coal produced exceeds one cubic meter but
does not exceed ten cubic meters.
 Gassy seam of Third Degree
• Gassy seam of third degree means a coal seam
or part thereof lying within the precincts of a
mine not being an opencast working in which
the rate of emission of the inflammable gas
per tonne of coal produced exceeds ten cubic
meters.
 General body of air
• General body of air means the general
atmosphere in a coal seam and includes the
atmosphere in the roof cavities, but does not
include general atmosphere in the sealed off
areas or in borehole drilled in coal or in the
adjacent strata.
 Regulatory condition
• For the purpose of securing adequate
ventilation, it must be ensured that along with
other conditions, ………..the percentage of
inflammable gas does not exceed 0.75 in the
general body of the return air of any
ventilating district and 1.25 at any place.
 Emission of methane at the face
• Factors affecting the rate of emission of methane at the face
depend on the following-

• 1.0 Gas content of coal- The gas content of coal in

situ depends chiefly on depth of the seam though other
geological factors also may introduce variations. The rate of
gas emission can be expressed as
• q=q0(H-H0)/a
Where q- gas emission at depth H m3/t
q0-gas emission at depth H0 m3/t
a- a constant giving the rate of increase of
methane emission.
(the value of a varies widely from 5m-40m from different fields
 Emission of methane at the face
2.0 Permeability of coal- this controls the migration of gas
to the face. It is the cracks and fissures produced by mining
stresses that mainly controls the immediate migration of
methane to the face instead of the permeability of the
virgin coal.
3.0 Density of the coal bed or highly carbonaceous strata.
4.0 Method of mine- In retreating method, the rate of gas
emission from the face is much lower than in advancing
method. Also, the degree of mechanization affects the rate
of gas emission . Large lumps release only 2 % of the total
gas content in the first two minutes where as coal pieces of
0.25mm-1mm release 40%.
 Calculation of methane emission
• Sample of air collected in the intake and return gates of
an advancing longwall face show 0.2 and 0.7 % CH4
respectively. Calculate the methane emission per tonne
of coal mined, if production from the face averages
1000t per day and air quantity of 20 m3 /sec circulates
along the face.
• Quantity of methane picked up by the air
= 20(0.7-0.2)/100 m3/sec
= 0.1 m3/sec= 86400 x 0.1 m3/day
=8640 m3/day
= 8640/1000 m3/tonnes= 8.64 m3/tonne.
 Streaming and Methane layering
• Methane emitted from the roof travels along the roof upwards in a layer
depending on the velocity of the air current and the roughness of the roof.
If the air current travels downwards along the dip, it will break the stream
and carry it down along with it provided the velocity is above a critical
velocity depending on the slope of the dip.
• Stable methane layer can also develop at the roof of horizontal galleries
depending on the rate of emission particularly at the roof level, the
velocity of air, the size of the airways, roughness of the surface, presence
of bends. In large airways having low air velocity, the velocity of the air at
the roof level may be much lower. Any methane emitted in this layer, will
not be easily diluted and forms layers, sometimes up to 1m thick , which
moves in the direction of the air current but at a slower velocity. The
percentage of methane slowly increase to about pure methane at the roof
level of such methane layers.
• The problem of methane layering becomes more acute in highly gassy coal
mines.
 Dispersal of methane layers
• The most practical solution to dispensing the
methane layering is by adequate coursing of
air to the layer level or by increasing the
velocity of air current in the related gallery.
The other solutions could be reducing the
emission of methane by methane drainage,
dispersing compressed air at the layer level
etc.
Danger of layering (circular)
DGMS (circular)
DGMS circulars
DGMS circular
 Methane drainage
• When the emission of methane from a seam is
very high, the surest way of bringing down the
rate of methane emission is by methane
drainage. Methane drainage not only
minimizes the hazards associated with a high
rate of methane emission but it also yields
valuable quantities of methane which can be
used as fuel. It is considered to be wise to plan
for methane drainage where the rate of
emission of methane exceeds 20 cu.m/ton.
 Methane drainage
• The drainage may be done from the surface, a working
seam/ from virgin seam.
• From the surface, it can be done by-
• (a)- vertical holes from surface with hydraulic stimulation
• (b)- vertical holes in goaves
• ( c)- Inclined holes from surface

• In a working/virgin seam, the common methods are-

(a) cross-measure borehole method
(b) Horizontal holes
(c) Superjacent heading method
(d) Pack cavity method
 Vertical holes from surface with
hydraulic stimulation
• A vertical hole is drilled from the surface
through the coal seam and cased to pre drain
the methane. The seams are hydraulically
fractured to drain as much of the methane as
possible ahead of the mining. In this method
the gas recovery is of high quality and
recovery is 50-80% of the total reserve at the
area.
Vertical holes from surface into goaves
• They can recover about 30-70% of the
methane emission in the goaf. They have short
production life and low gas quality and hence
the product has less economic value. They are
usually more essential to the safe and efficient
working of the longwall panel where the
emission of methane is high.
 Methane drainage
• Cross borehole method- The boreholes are drilled from
junctions usually from tail gate of an advancing
longwall face. The holes are inclined depending on the
dip of the strata. The boreholes are 65mm-90mm in
diameter and are spaced 20m-30m so that they are not
too close to each other. Their lengths vary from 15m-
100m depending on the presence of superjacent gas
bearing seams which have to be intersected for
drainage. The suction should be high enough to
overcome the friction of the pipe ranges, but, at the
same time , should not be so high that air may leak into
the goaf and dilute the methane.
 Methane drainage
• Superjacent heading method or Hirschbach
method- Headings are driven at a height of
about 25m-30m on top of the working seam.
These workings are driven in stone or if
possible in coal seam or already driven
workings.
 Methane drainage
• Pack cavity method- Pipes are left at 40m
intervals in the goaf , parallel to the face,
extending up to about 20m from the main and
tail gate roadways. These are connected to a
main pipe and the gas is collected by applying a
suction head of 250-350 Pa. It yields a smaller
amount of gas in comparison with other methods
and is not very popular in view of the fact that
the suction head could result in breathing in of air
into the goaf resulting into spontaneous heating.
Detection and monitoring of gases
• The principles on which the different detection methods
are based include (a) catalytic oxidation (b) electrochemical
(c) optical detectors (d) electrical conductivity (e)
adsorbents.
• (a) Catalytic oxidation – In these, the detectors are used to
measure the concentration of combustible gases (mainly
methane and CO) by measuring either the heat generated
during the oxidation process or the change in resistance in
an electric circuit (wheatstone bridge). In the wheatstone
bridge principle, one leg of the bridge is used to burn the
gas, thus heating that leg and causing an imbalance in the
bridge resistance, which is proportional to the
concentration of the combustible gases present.
Detection and monitoring of gases
• (b) Electrochemical sensors are use to
determine the concentration of oxygen,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, oxides
of nitrogen. The gas being measured reacts
with a special electrode in the electrolyte. This
reaction generates an electric current that is
proportional to the concentration of the gas
present.
Detection and monitoring of gases
• ( c) Optical detectors are of two types (i) non
dispersive infrared detector is based on the
principle that different gases absorb lights at
specific and distinct wavelengths. By passing
light through a gas mixture and measuring the
amount of absorption, the concentration of
the gas is determined.
Detection and monitoring of gases
• (ii) interferometer, is based on the difference
in the index of refraction between two gases.
Basically a beam of light is split, with one part
passing within the chamber filled with air and
other passing through a chamber filled with
an unknown gas mixture. The difference in the
velocity of the two beams is proportional to
the concentration of the gas (of interest).
Detection and monitoring of gases
• Electrical conductivity- Electrical conductivity
uses special type of elements (semiconductors)
that change resistance in the presence of certain
gases.
• Adsorbents- It uses reactive properties of the
gases and the chemicals to cause colour changes
in the chemical. The colour change is
proportional to the gas concentration, measured
as either the length or the intensity of the stain.
 Safety Lamps
• It is one of the oldest type of gas detectors. In
addition to methane, it is also used to test for the
deficiency of oxygen and excess presence of
carbon-dioxide. In oxygen concentration of 13%
and lower, the flame of the FSL will not burn and
get extinguished irrespective of the concentration
of methane. This is also the percentage of oxygen
at which a person will fall unconscious after
prolonged exposure. Similarly the flame will also
get extinguished at 5% of methane and adequate
oxygen.
 Principal sources of heat in mine air
• 1.0 Heat carried from surface when the surface temperature is higher
compared with underground temp.
• 2.0 Heat from the rock (strata heat)- The geothermal gradient of a place is
expressed as the rate of increase in temperature with the increase in
depth and is expressed in m/0C.
• 3.0 Heat released by machinery- The main source of power for the
machinery and equipments is electricity, and a few diesel or compressed
air. Machineries are significant source of heat to the mine air.
• 4.0 Adiabatic compression of air going down a shaft- As the air goes down
a shaft or incline, it gets compressed by the column of air above it and the
and the potential energy is converted into heat energy and the air
temperature increases.
• 5.0 Heat given out by men- Heat is produced by men by the process of
metabolism though the quantity of heat added to the mine air is
negligible.
• 6.0 Heat due to chemical processes, oxidation of coal, burning of lamps,
blasting etc.
• 7.0 Heat from lights in roadways, cap lamps etc.
 Moisture in mine air
• The moisture content of air generally goes up as it
travels through the mine workings. The capacity of a
certain quantity of dry air for containing water
vapour (moisture) goes up with temperature. When
the air contains the maximum quantity of water
vapour for a certain temperature and space, it is
called saturated air corresponding to that
temperature. Normal intake air contain certain
amount of moisture. The temperature at which the
air attains saturation is called dew point.
 Sources of moisture in mine air
• 1.0 Surface source- The intake air carries with it certain
amount of air.
• 2.0 Seepage of water- The seepage water in the mine
also evaporates and the moisture is added to the mine
air.
• 3.0 Burning of lamps, oxidation of coal, burning of
diesel fuel in machinery also results in addition of
moisture into the mine environment.
• 4.0 Misc- (a) Water spraying for dust suppression, (b)
hydraulic stowing, ( c) cooling towers in mines having
air cooling system, (d) drilling etc. also add moisture to
the mine environment.
 Relative humidity
• Relative humidity is the ratio of actual vapour
pressure to the saturation vapour pressure at
the temperature of observation (dry bulb
temperature) expressed as a percentage.
 Wet bulb temperature
• It is the temperature recorded by a thermometer
whose bulb is covered with a thin cotton cloth (muslin
gauge) the lower end of which is dipped into water so
that the surface of the bulb is kept moist at all times
with capillary action. When this thermometer is placed
in unsaturated air, the air will pick up the moisture
from the bulb of the thermometer. In view of the
evaporation, the temperature of the thermometer will
drop due to latent heat of evaporation, until the air
gets saturated. Once the air gets saturated, there will
be no further evaporation and the temperature will
remain constant. This will indicate the wet bulb
temperature.
 Instruments for determination of
relative humidity
• Whirling Hygrometer- In this instrument, there are two
thermometers mounted side by side, the bulb of one is
exposed to the air and the other covered with a thin gauge
of muslin, the lower end of which is dipped in a container
filled with water. However, if it is not placed in an air
current with a velocity of 3m/sec or more, the moisture
evaporated from the wet bulb surrounds both the dry and
wet bulbs thus affecting the reading slightly. Besides, the
evaporative cooling of the wet bulb may also affect the dry
bulb temperature with low air velocity. The whirling
hygrometer is used for better accuracy. The hygrometer is
provided with a handle for whirling at a rate of 200 rpm
which produces a relative velocity of 3m/sec.
 Effects of Heat and Humidity
• The major part of the heat produced by the
body is dissipated from the surface of the skin
by evaporation of sweat, convection and
radiation and a part from the lungs by
exhalation. The heat transfer from the inner
part of the body to the skin is through blood
circulation. When the dry bulb temperature of
the mine exceeds the body temperature, the
body can release heat to the surrounding by
evaporation only.
 Effect of Heat and Humidity
• Heat Stroke and its causes-
• (1) Higher air velocity facilitates in rate of
evaporation by carrying away the saturated air in
immediate contact with the body. An air velocity
of about 1 m/sec is most suitable granting
adequate comfort to the body but higher velocity
may cause discomfort by raising dust in the air. A
high velocity of 3m/sec and above with high dry
bulb temperature and low relative humidity
cause burning sensation of the skin, rise of body
temperature by too rapid evaporation of sweat
and may result in heat stroke.
 Effect of Heat and Humidity
• It results due to the failure of the body to regulate the body
temperature. The temperature of the body rises and the
early symptoms are restlessness, excitement, intolerance
and delirium. A usual symptom is vomiting. In some cases,
cramps of the muscles and loss of body fluid may also
result. The skin becomes hot, dry and gritty, pulse fast and
irregular and respiration difficult and noisy. The person may
loose consciousness and death may be the ultimate result.
• All effort should be may to bring down the temperature
and removing the clothes, spraying water and fanning of
the person. When the temperature decreases to about 39
degrees centigrade, the person should be covered with
blanket and kept on observation.
 Effect of Heat and Humidity
• Heat exhaustion and causes-
• A person working in hot and humid atmosphere
may suffer from heat exhaustion and collapse.
The temperature the person may not be very
high. This results due to more blood
accumulating in the lower part of the body with
reduced availability to the brain. The symptoms
may be mental fatigue, nausea, giddiness,
headache, vomitting, blurred vision, and collapse.
The patient should be asked to lie down, take rest
and body temperature should be allowed to cool.
 Effect of Heat and Humidity
• Dehydration-
• During hard work a man might loose a lot of
water and salt due to sweating. A common
symptom of salt loss is widespread, intense
and painful cramps of the muscles.
 Mine refrigeration process
One of the earliest methods of temperature control in underground
mines was the importation of naturally produced ice from the
surface. Blocks of ice were transported in ore cars to cool miners in
the Comstock Lode under Virginia City in Nevada, USA, during the
1860's. The vapour compression refrigeration cycle, currently the
most widespread method of artificial cooling, appears to have first
been used in mining during the 1920's. Examples included the
famous Morro Velho Mine in Brazil (1923) and experimental work in
British coal mines (Hancock, 1926). Air cooling techniques in mining
gained further recognition in the 1930's including their utilization in
the gold mines of South Africa and in the Kolar Goldfields of India.
However, it was the 1960's that saw the start of a real escalation of
installed mine cooling capacity.
• As the mining depth increases, the temperature of the
rock increases, and the heat damage caused by the
ground temperatures and other factors is amplified.
For example, at a depth of 900 m in a mine in Germany,
the average temperature is 41°C and at the mining
depth of 1712 m, the maximum temperature is 50°C. In
gold mines in India, at a depth of 3000 m, the
geothermal temperature is more than 60°C. The
world’s deepest underground mine is South Africa’s
Carletonville gold deposit: the mining depth is 4000 m
and the ground temperatures is 70°C.
• The high-temperature, high-humidity, and low-velocity work
environment on the working surface in deep mines causes the
central nervous system to be inhibited for workers working
underground for a long period of time. The symptoms include
mental retardation, lack of concentration, and decreased ability to
work. At the same time, the environment being hot and humid,
working for a long time will also make the workers feel
uncomfortable, irritated, and have eczema and other diseases that
will seriously affect the safety production efficiency of the mine.
Solving the problem of ventilation difficulties and high-temperature
heat damage in deep mines can not only protect the physical and
mental health of underground miners, but also help improve the
production efficiency of deep mine operating surfaces and
contribute to the exploitation of mineral resources at depth.
• Figure 18.3 shows that there are four essential components of hardware in a
vapour compression refrigeration unit. The evaporator is a heat exchanger,
typically of the shell-and-tube configuration in mining refrigeration plant. In the
larger units, the refrigerant liquid is on the outside of the tubes while the medium
to be cooled (for example, water, brine or glycol) passes through the tubes.
Smaller units employed for direct cooling of an airstream are sometimes called
"direct evaporators" and contain the refrigerant within the tubes while the air
passes over their outer surface. Within the evaporator, the refrigerant pressure is
maintained at a relatively low level and boils at a correspondingly low
temperature. For example, refrigerant R12 will boil at 4°C if the pressure is 351 kPa
(approximately 3.5 atmospheres). The heat required to maintain the boiling is
extracted from the gas or liquid passing on the other side of the tube walls. Hence,
that gas or liquid is cooled. The refrigerant, now vaporized, collects at the top of
the evaporator and is allowed to gain a few degrees of superheat to ensure full
vaporization before it passes on the compressor. Except for direct evaporators, it
may be necessary to insulate the external surface of the evaporator in order to
prevent excessive heat gain from the ambient atmosphere.
• The refrigerant vapour leaves the compressor and passes into the
condenser at a relatively high pressure and temperature. The
condenser itself may be of similar construction to the evaporator,
that is, a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Heat is removed from the
refrigerant by air, water or some other fluid medium to the extent
that the refrigerant cools and condenses back to a liquid. As the
pressure is high, this occurs at a relatively high temperature. At a
pressure of 1217 kPa, refrigerant R12 will condense at 50°C. The
latent heat of condensation is removed by the cooling fluid for
subsequent rejection in a cooling tower or other type of separate
heat exchanger. As the vapour compression cycle is a closed system
(ignoring heat losses or gains from the surrounding atmosphere),
the rate at which heat is removed from the refrigerant in the
condenser must equal the combined rates of heat addition in the
evaporator and work provided by the compressor.
• The condensed refrigerant passes from the condenser to
the fourth and final component of the cycle. This is the
expansion valve whose purpose is simply to reduce the
pressure of the refrigerant back to evaporator conditions.
An expansion valve may be a simple orifice plate or can be
controlled by a float valve. At the exit from the expansion
valve, the liquid is at low pressure and has a
correspondingly low boiling temperature. Provided that the
pipework is insulated, the latent heat for boiling can come
only from the liquid refrigerant itself. Hence, the
temperature of the refrigerant drops rapidly as it passes
from the expansion valve to the evaporator where it enters
as a mixture of liquid and vapour, thus closing the cycle.
• In the majority of large scale mine cooling
systems, there are usually three sets of heat
transfer involved: • transfer of heat from the
work areas to the evaporators of the
refrigeration units • transfer of heat from the
evaporators to the condensers in the
refrigeration units (the vapour compression
cycle) • transfer of heat from the condensers
to the free atmosphere on surface
 What are spot coolers
• A simple application of a direct evaporator is a "spot cooler" of a
specific working area in a mine. The evaporator of the refrigeration
unit takes the form of copper or cupronickel tubular coils located
within an air duct. The refrigerant passes through the inside of the
evaporator tubes and cools the air flowing along the duct. The heat
from the condenser is rejected directly to the return air. This system
has the advantage that the cooling effect produced by the
refrigeration unit is utilized directly and immediately at the place
where cooling is required. There is no loss of efficiency introduced
by an intervening water reticulation system between the
evaporator and working area. Similarly, heat rejection from the
condenser is direct and immediate. The spot cooler is merely an
industrial version of a domestic air conditioning unit where heat is
rejected directly to the outside atmosphere.
• In most of the mine air refrigeration systems, the
refrigeration plant is either sited on the surface or
belowground at a stable location and the chilled water from
the evaporator is piped to the heat exchanger near the
faces thereby cooling the air reaching the faces. The chilled
water flows through thermally insulated pipes to heat
exchangers near the faces, stopes, panels or headings and
returns to the plant via un-insulated pipes. The condenser
could take the form of a shell and tube heat exchanger and
the gaseous refrigerant cooled by a water circuit during
change of heat and the hot water can then be piped away
and re-circulated through a heat exchanger in a main return
airway.
 Laminar and Turbulent flow
• There are two types of fluid flow in a pipe- (a) Laminar flow
(b) Turbulent flow.
• Laminar flow- In laminar flow, the velocity is low and thin
laminates of the fluid slip relative to one another and the
molecules move in parallel path. The streamline pattern
does not change with time. The velocity of the fluid at a
point in the pipe remains constant.
• Turbulent flow- The velocity of the fluid is high, movement
of the fluid molecules is random. The streamlines are
haphazard, random and varies from one instant to another.
The velocity at a point in a pipe undergoes random
fluctuations although the mean velocity remains constant
over time.
 Raynold’s number
• Whether the flow of a fluid is laminar or
turbulent depends on the value of a non
dimensional parameter known as Reynold’s
number denoted as Re. Fluid flow through a pipe
is generally laminar when the Reynold’s number
is 2100 or lower and turbulent when Re is 4000
and above.
• Reynold’s number=Re=
• Velocity of flow(m/sec) x diameter of pipe (m) x
density of fluid (kg per cu.m/co-efficient of
viscosity (Kg/ms)
 Pitot tube
• A pitot tube is a device which can be used to measure the
static pressure, velocity pressure and total pressure. It
comprises of two concentric tubes, the inner tube having
an open end, to face the airflow to measure total pressure
and the outer tube is closed at the end but has holes drilled
at right angles to the axis of the tube to measure the static
pressure. The other end of the pitot tube is fitted with two
fittings, one for each tube, for connecting with two limbs of
a manometer. Since, one leg is utilised to obtain the static
pressure and the other to obtain the total pressure, the
actual reading recording the velocity pressure which is
equal to the difference between the limbs of the U tube
(manometer).
 Pitot tube
• The velocity pressure= total pressure - static
pressure. The velocity is then calculated from the
equation,
• V=(2 Pv/ ρ)1/2 where Pv = velocity pressure in Pa.
• Ρ= density of air in Kg/m3
• V= Velocity of air in m/sec.
• Taking the mean density of air to be 1.2 Kg/m3 ,
we may state,
• V= 1.29(Pv)1/2
 Chezy-Darcy equation
• Pressure loss in turbulent flow-
• Pressure loss in proportional to
(a) The velocity head V2/2, where V is the mean velocity
(b) The length of the duct or pipe, L
(c) Inverse of the duct diameter D
(d) Density of the fluid ρ
(e) Thus pressure loss P=λρ LV2/2D Kg/m3 .m/m.m2 /Sec2
(f) P= λρ LV2/2D N/m2
Where λ is a dimensionless constant of proportionality ,
called the coefficient of friction.
The above equation is sometimes expressed in terms of head
of fluid, h, by dividing both the sides by ρg, so that the
head loss for causing the flow is given by the equation,
h=P/ρg= λ LV2/2gD meters.
 Atkinson’s equation
• Atkinson’s proposed two simple modifications to Chezy-
Darcy equation for applying it to airflow in mines. For
making the above formula suitable for airways of all
shapes, he introduced the concept of hydraulic mean
diameter ie. D was substituted by 4A/O where A is the cross
sectional area and O is the perimeter of the airway. He also
introduced the term ‘rubbing surface’ S which is equal to
the length of the duct multiplied by its perimeter (S=L.O).
• P= λρ LV2/2D N/m2 = λρ V2/2 x L.O/4A
• Putting K= λρ/8
• Thus P=KSV2/A ………………………..(i)
• By putting, V=Q/A,
• P=KSQ2/A3 ……………………………….(ii)
• Where Q is the quantity of airflow in m3/s.
• K is known as the airway friction factor and equations (i)
and (ii) are (ii) known as Atkinson’s equations.
 The square law
• Atkinson’s law for pressure loss can further be
simplified by putting R=KS/A3 . Thus for any given
airway,
• P=KSQ2/A3=RQ2 where R is the resistance of the
airway having an unit of Ns2/m8 in SI unit. In MKS
unit, R has the unit of Kilomurg which is the
resistance of an airway requiring 1Kg/m2 pressure
to cause a flow of 1m3/s of air. In some countries,
the term Weisbach is used instead of Kilomurg.
 Resistances in series
• Resistances in series- A mine ventilation system is made up
of many airways of different resistance values. For
resistances connected in series, the equivalent resistance is
obtained by adding the individual resistances
arithmetically. Thus
• R=R1+R2+R3….+Rn,
• Where R=Equivalent combined resistances of n number of
airways in series and
• R1,R2,R3…..Rn = the individual resistance of the airways.
• Thus, since the same quantity of air Q flows through all the
airways and the total frictional pressure drop is the sum of
individual pressure drops.
 Resistances in parallel
• Resistance of parallel circuit- In case of parallel circuits,
the quantity Q splits to Q1, Q2 and Q3 in this case.
Pressure P is, however common to each parallel airway.
• P=R1Q12=R2Q22=R3Q32
• Therefore, Q1=(P/R1)1/2, Q2=(P/R2)1/2, Q3=(P/R3)1/2 ,
• Q=Q1+Q2+Q3= (P/R1)1/2 + (P/R2)1/2 + (P/R3)1/2
• Q= P1/2 (1/R11/2+1/R21/2+1/R31/2) ,
• If R is the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit,
• We know, P=RQ2 , Q= (P/R)1/2 , hence
• 1/R 1/2=1/R11/2+1/R21/2+1/R31/2
•
 Equivalent orifice
• The equivalent orifice of a mine is the area of
an imaginary opening in a thin plate, which
offers the same resistance to the passage of
air as is offered by the mine itself.
• If P=P1- P2 be the pressure difference across
the plate in N/m2 . Then, P/ρg= head of fluid
causing the flow= h meters. For flow through
an orifice, V= (2gh)1/2 m/sec.
• What is the water gauge required to pass 1500
cu.m/min of air through an airway of 2.5m x
3.0m cross section and 2000m long. The co-
efficient of friction ie K is 0.001 Ns2m-4).
• What is the pressure required to circulate
20m3 of air per second, through a mine
airway 300m long, 2.5m high and 3.0m wide.
The co-efficient of friction of the airway (K) is
0.01 Nsec2m-4