Air Pollution

FIREWOIN BIRHANU
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACOLGY
SPHMMC.
1 Phone no. 0911481602 04/08/2023
Objectives
By the end of this lesson students will be able to:-
Define What air Pollution is
Discuses Sources of pollutants
Describe major substances that contribute for air
pollutions with their mechanism of action, clinical
symptom and managements.
List some methods that used to Monitor and Control of
air pollution

04/08/2023
Out-line
Introduction
Sources of air pollution
Air pollutants
Carbon monoxide
Sulfur oxides
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Particulate matter
Smog
Monitoring of air pollution
Control of air pollution
Introduction
Air is essential for life it self, without it we could
survive only a few minutes.
Normal components of our atmosphere Nitrogen -
78.1%
Oxygen - 20.9%
Carbon dioxide - 0.03%
Everything else - 0.07%
Noble gases (krypton, xenon, argon, helium)
Methane , sulfur dioxide
Introduction (cont….)
What is air Pollution?
Air pollution consists of gases, liquids, or solids present
in the atmosphere in high enough levels to harm humans,
other organisms, or materials
May be defined as any atmospheric condition in which
certain substances are present in such concentrations that
they can produce undesirable effects on man and his
environment.
Introduction (cont….)
Any visible or invisible particle or gas found in the air
that is not part of the original, normal composition.
Air pollutants may be either emitted into the
atmosphere or formed within atmosphere itself:
Introduction (cont….)
Although the Earth's atmosphere extends to several layers
above the surface, it is only the first 30 km that hold the major
portion of the atmospheric gases.
Man is most directly concerned with only the 8-10 km of the
atmosphere.
The level of atmospheric pollution at anyone time depends
upon meteorological factors,
e.g., Topography, air movement and climate.
Winds help in the dispersal and dilution of pollutants.
If the topography is dominated by mountains (or tall
buildings) the winds become weak and calm, and pollutants
tend to concentrate in the breathing zone.
Introduction (cont….)
The vertical diffusion of pollutants depends upon the
temperature gradient.
When there is a rapid cooling of lower layers of air
(temperature inversion), there is little vertical motion and
the pollutants and water vapours remain trapped at the
lower levels and the result is "smog".
The "temperature inversion "which is more frequent in
the winter months than in spring or summer, is a threat to
human health.
Sources of Air Pollutants
Sources of pollutants include
Fossil fuel burning,
Transportation,
Manufacturing, other industrial activities,
Generation of electric power,
Space heating,
Refuse disposal, and others.
Sources of Air Pollutants (Cont …)
The main sources of air pollution are:
AUTOMOBILES:
Motor vehicles are a major source of air pollution
throughout the urban areas.
They emit hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, lead,
nitrogen oxides and particulate matter.
In strong sunlight, certain of these hydrocarbons and
oxides of nitrogen may be converted in the atmosphere
into "photochemical" pollutants of oxidizing nature.
In addition, diesel engines, when misused or badly
adjusted are capable of emitting black smoke and
malodorous, fumes
Sources of Air Pollutants (Cont …)
INDUSTRIES:
Combustion of fuel to generate heat and power produces
smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fly ash.
Petrochemical industries generate hydrogen fluoride,
hydrochloric acid and organic halides.
Many industries discharge carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, ozone, hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide.
Industries discharge their wastes from high chimneys at
high temperature and high speed.
DOMESTIC SOURCES :
Domestic combustion of coal, wood or oil is a major source
of smoke, dust, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Sources of Air Pollutants (Cont …)
TOBACCO SMOKE:
The most direct and important source of air
pollution affecting the health of many people .
Even those who do not smoke may inhale the smoke
produced by others ("passive smoking").
MISCELLANEOUS:
These comprise burning refuse, incinerators, pesticide
spraying,
Natural sources (e.g., wind borne dust, fungi, molds,
bacteria) and nuclear energy programmes.
All these contribute to air pollution.
Air Pollutants
Five major substances have been said to account for
about 98% of air pollution:
Carbon monoxide (about 52%);
Sulfur oxides (about 14%);
Hydrocarbons (about 14%);
Nitrogen oxides (about 14%) and
Ozone, their breakdown product; and Particulate matter
(about 4%)
Carbon monoxide
It is colorless , odorless gas , tasteless, and
nonirritating gas
A product of incomplete combustion of carbon
containing materials, such as in automobiles, industrial
process, heating facilities and incinerators
Some widespread natural non biological and biological
sources have also been identified.
Concentrations in urban areas depend on weather and
traffic density.
Carbon monoxide (cont…)
Effect of CO pollution on the health:
It causes harmful effect by reducing oxygen delivery
to body organ , in extremely high level it can cause
death.
CO’s affinity for Hb is 240–270 times greater than
oxygen so it competes with O2 to bind (irreversibly)
with haemoglobin
By this exposure to it reduce the oxygen -carrying
capacity of the blood to the heart, brain and other
organs .
Carbon monoxide (cont…)
The principal signs of CO intoxication are those of
hypoxia. They progress in the following sequence:
1. Psychomotor impairment;
2. Headache and tightness in the temporal area;
3. Confusion and loss of visual acuity;
4. Tachycardia, tachypnea, syncope, and coma; and
5. Deep coma, convulsions, shock, and respiratory
failure.
Carbon monoxide (cont…)
There is great variability in individual responses to
carboxyhemoglobin concentration.
Carboxyhemoglobin levels:-
 below 15% may produce headache and malaise;
at 25% many workers complain of headache, fatigue,
decreased attention span, and loss of fine motor
coordination.
at around 40%; Collapse and syncope may appear and
above 60%, death may ensue as a result of irreversible
damage to the brain and myocardium.
Carbon monoxide (cont…)
The clinical effects may be aggravated by heavy labor, high
altitudes, and high ambient temperatures.
CO intoxication is usually thought of as a form of acute
toxicity.
There is evidence that chronic exposure to low CO levels
may lead to adverse cardiac effects, neurologic disturbance,
and emotional disorders.
The developing fetus is quite susceptible to the effects of CO
exposure.
Exposure of a pregnant woman to elevated CO levels at critical
periods of fetal development may cause fetal death or serious
and irreversible but survivable birth defects.
 Carbon monoxide (cont…)
Treatment
Patients who have been exposed to CO must be removed from the exposure source
immediately.
Respiration must be maintained and high flow and concentration of oxygen should be
administered promptly.
If respiratory failure is present, mechanical ventilation is required,
High concentrations of oxygen may be toxic and may contribute to the development
of acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Therefore, patients should be treated with high concentrations only for a short
period.
With room air at 1 atm,
the elimination half-time of CO is about 320 minutes;
with 100% oxygen, the half-time is about 80 minutes; and
With hyperbaric oxygen (2–3 atm), the half-time can be reduced to about 20 minutes.
Although some controversy exists about hyperbaric oxygen for CO poisoning, it may
be used if it is readily available.
Carbon monoxide (cont…)
Progressive recovery from treated CO poisoning, even
of a severe degree can be complete but some patients
manifest neuropsychological and motor dysfunction
for a long time after recovery from acute CO poisoning
Sulphur dioxide
It is one of the several forms in which sulphur exists in
air.
The others include H2S,H2SO4 and sulphate salts.
Sulphur dioxide results from the combustion of sulphur
containing fossil fuel, and when coal and fuel oil are
burned.
Domestic fires can also produce emissions containing
sulphur dioxide.
Acid aerosol - sulphuric acid (H2S04)is a strong acid that
is formed from the reaction of sulphur trioxide gas (S03)
with water.
Sulphur dioxide (Cont…)
Mechanism of action
Because of its high solubility, when SO2 contacts moist
membranes, it transiently forms sulfurous acid.
This acid has severe irritant effects on the eyes, mucous
membranes, and skin.
Approximately 90% of inhaled SO2 is absorbed in the
upper respiratory tract, the site of its principal effect.
The inhalation of SO2 causes bronchial constriction and
produces profuse bronchorrhea; parasympathetic reflexes
and altered smooth muscle tone appear to be involved.
The clinical outcome is an acute irritant asthma.
Sulphur dioxide (Cont…)
Clinical effects
The signs and symptoms of intoxication include irritation of the
eyes, nose, and throat, reflex bronchoconstriction, and increased
bronchial secretions.
In asthmatic subjects, exposure to SO2 may result in an acute
asthmatic episode. If severe exposure has occurred, delayed-onset
pulmonary edema may be observed.
Cumulative effects from chronic low-level exposure to SO2 are not
striking, particularly in humans, but these effects have been
associated with aggravation of chronic cardiopulmonary disease.
When combined exposure to high respirable particulate loads and
SO2 occurs, the mixed irritant load may increase the toxic
respiratory response.
Sulphur dioxide (Cont…)
Treatment
Treatment is not specific for SO2 but depends on
therapeutic maneuvers used to treat irritation of the
respiratory tract and asthma.
Nitrogen oxides
Nitric oxide (NO) is produced by combustion.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which has greater health
effects, is a secondary pollutant created by the
oxidation of NO under conditions of sunlight, or may
be formed directly by higher temperature
combustion in power plants or indoors from gas
stoves.
Nitrogen Dioxide
NO2 is reddish, brown gas present in car exhaust and
power plants.
Levels of exposure to nitrogen dioxide that should not
be:-
 400 μg/m3 (0.21 ppm) for one hour
150 μg/m3 (0.08 ppm) for 24 hours (WHO, 1987a).
 Nitrogen Dioxide (Cont…)
Mechanism of action
NO2 is a relatively insoluble deep lung irritant.
It is capable of producing pulmonary edema and acute adult respiratory distress syndrome
(ARDS).
Inhalation damages the lung infrastructure that produces the surfactant necessary to allow smooth
and low-effort lung alveolar expansion.
The type I cells of the alveoli appear to be the cells chiefly affected by acute low to moderate
inhalation exposure.
If only type I cells are damaged, after an acute period of severe distress, it is likely that treatment
with modern ventilation equipment and medications will result in recovery.
At higher exposure, both type I and type II alveolar cells are damaged. Some patients develop
nonallergic asthma, or “twitchy airway” disease, after such a respiratory insult.
If severe damage to the type I and type II alveolar cells occurs, replacement of the type I cells may
be impaired; progressive fibrosis may ensue that eventually leads to bronchial ablation and alveolar
collapse.
This can result in permanent restrictive respiratory disease.
In addition to the direct deep lung effect, long-term exposure to lower concentrations of nitrogen
dioxide has been linked to cardiovascular disease, increased incidence of stroke, and other
chronic disease.
Nitrogen Dioxide (Cont…)
Clinical effect
The signs and symptoms of acute exposure to NO2 include irritation
of the eyes and nose, cough, mucoid or frothy sputum production,
dyspnea, and chest pain.
Pulmonary edema may appear within 1–2 hours.
In some individuals, the clinical signs may subside in about 2 weeks;
the patient may then pass into a second stage of abruptly increasing
severity, including recurring pulmonary edema and fibrotic
destruction of terminal bronchioles (bronchiolitis obliterans).
Chronic exposure of laboratory animals to 10–25 ppm NO2 has
resulted in emphysematous changes; thus, chronic effects in humans
are of concern.
Nitrogen Dioxide (Cont…)
Treatment
There is no specific treatment for acute intoxication by NO2;
therapeutic measures for the management of deep lung irritation
and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema are used.
These measures include maintenance of gas exchange with
adequate oxygenation and alveolar ventilation.
Drug therapy may include;-
 bronchodilators, sedatives, and antibiotics.
New approaches to the management of NO2-induced ARDS
have been developed and considerable controversy now exists
about the precise respiratory protocol to use in any given patient
 Particulate matter
It represents a complex mixture of organic and inorganic substances.
Mass and composition tend to divide into two principal groups :
Coarse particles larger than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter, and
Fine particles smaller than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter.
The smaller particles contain the secondarily formed
aerosols ,combustion particles and recompensed organic and metal
vapours.
The large particles usually contain earth's crustal material and fugitive
dust from roads and industries.
Particulate matter of respirable size may be emitted from a number of
sources, some of them natural (e.g. dust storms)and many others that
are more widespread and more important (e.g., power plants and
industrial processes, domestic coal burning, industrial incinerators).
Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a bluish irritant gas found in the earth’s
atmosphere, where it is an important absorbent of
ultraviolet light at high altitude.
At ground level, ozone is an important pollutant.
Atmospheric ozone pollution is derived from
photolysis of oxides of nitrogen, volatile organic
compounds, and CO.
Ground level ozone
This is formed when pollutants such as nitrogen oxides
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in
sunlight .
High levels can cause breathing problems, reduce lung
function and trigger asthma symptoms.
Ground level ozone can also seriously damage crops
and vegetation.
The WHO guidelines are 150–200 μg/m3 (0.076–0.1
ppm) for one hour exposure and 100–200 μg/m3
(0.05- 0.06 ppm) for 8 hour exposures (WHO, 1987a)
SMOG
Smog is made up of mixture of those pollutants in the
atmosphere
Combination of words smoke and fog.
There are two types :
Reducing smog characterized by sulpher dioxide and
particulate.
Photochemical smog characterized by ozone and other
oxidants.
Limits visibility
Decreases UV radiation
Yellow/black color over cities
Causes respiratory problems and bronchial related deaths
Other pollutant
Carbon dioxide
Volatile organic compounds
 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
Other pollutant
Toxic metals:
Lead
Cadmium
Copper
Chlorofluorocarbons: (CFCs)
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
Monitoring of air pollution
The best indicators of air pollution are :
Sulphur dioxide.
smoke
suspended particles:
A known volume of air is filtered through a white filter paper under
specified conditions and the stain is measured by photoelectric meter.
Smoke concentration is estimated and expressed as micrograms/cubic
metre of air as an average level over a period of time.
Grit and dust measurement :
Coefficient of haze:
AQI: Air Quality Index
Indicates whether pollutant levels in air may cause health concerns or not.
 Ranges from 0 (least concern) to 500 (greatest concern)
 Control of air pollution
Control and prevention of air pollution
WHO has recommended the following procedures for the prevention and control of air pollution:
1. Eliminate or control the sources of pollution:
 Improved stoves
 Clean fuels (kerosene, gas)
 Venting stoves for cooking and heating
 Regular maintenance of cooking, heating and cooling systems
2. Ventilation – building design
 Dilute and remove pollutants through ventilation with outdoor air
3. Air cleaning – NOT air fresheners!
 Air filters and ionizers may remove some airborne particles
 Gas adsorbing material is used to remove gaseous contaminants
4. Education of:
 Children
 Family and community
 Health care providers
5. Environment policymaking:
 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
 Clean indoor air regulations
 Community actions Research
Control of air pollution (Cont…)
Control of outdoor air pollution
1. Containment:
 That is, prevention of escape of toxic substances into the ambient air.
 Containment can be achieved by a variety of engineering methods
such as enclosure, ventilation and air cleaning.
 A major contribution in this field is the development of "arresters" for
the removal of contaminants.
2. Replacement:
 That is, replacing a technological process causing air pollution, by a
new process that does not.
 Increased use of electricity, natural gas and central heating in place of
coal have greatly helped in smoke reduction.
 There is a move now to reduce lead in petrol which is a cumulative
poison.
Control of air pollution (Cont…)
3. Dilution:
 Dilution is valid so long as it is within the self- cleaning capacity of
the environment.
 Some air pollutants are readily removed by vegetation.
 The establishment of "green belts“ between industrial and residential
areas is an attempt at dilution.
 The capacity for dilution is, however, limited and trouble occurs when
the atmosphere is overburdened with pollutants.
4. Legislation:
 e.g., Clean Air Acts, legislation covers such matters as:
 height of chimneys .
 powers to local authorities to carry out investigations, research and education
concerning air pollution
 creation of smokeless zones and enforcement of standard for ambient air quality.