Underground mine air is a mixture of several gases.

The air found underground seldom contains

MINE the exact concentrations of gases because, as it circulates through the mine, it loses some of its
oxygen and gains other gases from various sources such as the strata, blasting, and internal
combustion engines.

GASES
Mine air may be contaminated by the presence of other gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, oxides of nitrogen and excess carbon dioxide. Mixtures
of gases found in mine environments are called damps. The presence of these gases may be due to any of the following: (1) After effects of blasting or other explosions; (2) After effects of
mine fires; (3) Liberation from ore or country rock, as with methane; (4) Decay of timbers in poorly ventilated areas; (5) Absorption of oxygen by water or oxidation of timber or ore; (6)
Use of diesel and gasoline motors in enclosed areas; (7) Gas carried with thermal water or carbon dioxide; and (8) Gas carried chemically by various chemicals and reagents.

OXYGEN NITROGEN
The most important gas in our world, oxygen, is nonflammable, yet nothing can burn without it. Oxygen is Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless inert gas. It is not combustible and will not support
the element in air that supports normal combustion. In its pure state, however, when combined with fuel combustion. Nitrogen is the main component of pure air (78.09) percent. It is slightly lighter than
gases (acetylene, MAPP, hydrogen, propane) and combustible substances, oxygen causes them to burn air. It has a specific gravity of 0.9669 and molecular weight of 28.014 g/mol.
fiercely at great speed. Oxygen is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. It is the most important constituent of
air (20.94 %). Oxygen is colorless, tasteless and odorless substance and has a specific gravity of 1.1044 Nitrogen has no physiological effect upon workers. It is only dangerous if present in
and a molecular weight of 31.999 g/mol. concentrations high enough to dilute the oxygen content of air below safe limits. Dilution can
EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY result from the oxidation of various substances or from fire which consumes the oxygen in mine
% OXYGEN IN AIR EFFECT atmosphere. Oxygen can, therefore, be reduced to a low level and residual nitrogen can mix with
21 Breathing easiest. products of combustion including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.
17 Faster, deep breathing
15 Dizziness, buzzing in ears, rapid heartbeat Nitrogen may be detected using the flame safety lamp, however, the flame safety lamp is of slight
13 Possible loss of consciousness with prolonged exposure use in detecting concentrations of nitrogen because nitrogen has no effect upon the flame when
9 Fainting, unconsciousness accompanied by sufficient oxygen at normal atmospheres.
7 Life endangerment
6 Convulsive movements, death

CARBON DIOXIDE CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless, noncombustible gas that may have an acid taste when present Carbon monoxide or “white damp” is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, toxic, and flammable gas produced by
in high concentrations. It is heavier than air and is therefore usually found in low places near the floor. the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous material. Carbon monoxide is both poisonous at very low
Although a constituent of normal mine air (0.03%), carbon dioxide is most often found in abandoned concentrations and explosive over a wide range (12.5-74% in air). It is formed underground by mine fires
and unventilated areas of a mine. Sources of carbon dioxide underground include the rock strata, and explosions, blasting, frictional heating prior to open burning, low-temperature oxidation, and internal-
oxidation, fire and explosions, blasting, and the human respiratory process.. Carbon dioxide has a combustion engines. Carbon monoxide has a specific gravity of 0.9667 and a molecular weight of 29.01
specific gravity of 1.5189 and molecular weight of 44.009 g/mol. g/mol.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CARBON MONOXIDE
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION ALLOWABLE LENGTH OF EXPOSURE
% CONCENTRATION OF CARBON INCREASE (ppm) (percent)
DIOXIDE IN BREATHING 50 0.005 Allowable for exposure of several hours*
0.05 Slight. 400-500 0.04-0.05 Can be inhaled for 1 hour without appreciable
0.5 Maximum allowable for an 8- hour day effect,
2.0 50 percent. 600-700 0.06-0.07 Just noticeable effects after labour exposure*
3.0 100 percent. 1000-1200 0.10 -0.12 Unpleasant, but probably not dangerous after
5.0 300 percent and laborious. labour exposure.
10.0 Cannot be endured for more than a few minutes. 1500-2000 0.15-0.20 Dangerous for exposure of 1 hour,
18.0 Rapid death. 4000 or more 0.4 or more Death in less than 1 hour.

METHANE
Methane is encountered in practically all coal mines. Flow of the gas is variable and is present in the
pores of coal. Methane is formed by decomposition of organic matter in the presence of water and
the absence of air or oxygen. In a coal mine, methane may be emitted from the cleats or cracks of
the coal, from "blowers" or "feeders", or from overlying or underlying strata. It is often released in
large amounts from the coal when irregularities, such as clay veins, "horsebacks," or faults occur.
Methane is colorless, odorless, tasteless, nontoxic, highly flammable, and lighter than air. This last
attribute results in methane accumulations forming along rooflines and in high areas of mines. It
has a specific gravity of 0.5537 and a molecular weight of 16.04 g/mol. Methane is considerably
lighter than air and when found at mines it is usually in high places near the roof. Accumulations of
the gas may be encountered in poorly ventilated mine workings. Methane is most often detected
by a methane detector.
Methane has no direct effect upon workers but it may displace the oxygen content of air to such an
extent as to cause oxygen deficiency. An open flame or a spark may cause an explosion. Federal law
requires electrical circuits to be isolated in any work area when the methane content in the general
body of air in that area reaches 1.0 percent. Federal law also requires that all miners be withdrawn
from any work area when the methane content of the general body of air in that area reaches 1.5
percent. No blasting or shot-firing is to be done when methane content exceeds 1.0 percent.
Explosiveness of coal dust increases in the presence of methane and coal dust in turn decreases the
lower explosive limit of methane
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It is very much lighter than air with a specific gravity of
0.0695 with a molecular weight of 2.016 g/mol and is highly flammable. Hydrogen is explosive over a broad
range of concentrations (4.1 to 74 percent). It will explode with as little as 5 percent oxygen in the air and is
most violently explosive at concentrations of 7 to 8 percent. Hydrogen is not a toxic gas and the only danger
from inhaling it is when concentrations are such that the oxygen content of the air is reduced.
Hydrogen is normally found in mine air in only very small quantities. It can, however, be produced when
mine fires heat rock to incandescence and also as a result of incomplete combustion. The most common
source of hydrogen gas under normal circumstances is in the battery charging area. The electrolytic action
which takes place during battery charging releases hydrogen gas. Charging stations must, therefore, be well
ventilated and smoking, electric arcs, etc., must be avoided in them.
From a trace to as much as 9 percent can be found in crevices of a coal face after blasting. It is formed here
as a result of incomplete combustion of explosives and by distillation of the coal caused by the explosion.
Hydrogen gas is usually present in amounts up to 2 percent in gas from ordinary mine fires and is always
present after coal dust explosions. Keep flames and sparks away from hydrogen, as with other fuel gases. Do
not crack the valve of a hydrogen cylinder to blow out dirt, etc., it could be dangerous. Hydrogen is detected
only by chemical analysis

SULFUR DIOXIDE
HYDROGEN SULFIDE Sulfur dioxide is a colorless, acidic taste with harsh odor, nonflammable, toxic gas formed whenever sulfur
or sulfur compounds are burned. Underground, it may be formed during the blasting of certain sulfur ores,
Hydrogen sulfide, often called "stinkdamp" because of its odor, which resembles that of rotten during fires involving sulfur compounds such as iron pyrite, and from internal-combustion engines. It is
eggs, is a colorless, acid taste, toxic, and explosive gas formed by the decomposition of sulfur significantly heavier than air, and in very low concentrations is irritating to the eyes, nose, and throat. Sulfur
compounds. It has a specific gravity of 1.1763 and a molecular weight of 34.1 g/mol. Low dioxide is highly soluble in water--in fact it is one of the most soluble gases found in mines. It is a very heavy
concentrations may be found in air from heated gobs or may be released from water seeping in gas and has a specific gravity of 2.264 and a molecular weight of 64.07 g/mol. It can, therefore, be
from the strata. Large concentrations occur in natural gas and oil fields and in some sulfur and expected to accumulate in low places. Sulfur dioxide is colorless with a distinctly acid taste.
gypsum mines. Hydrogen sulfide is quite soluble in water and may be carried into active mine PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION
workings by groundwater.
PPM PERCENT EFFECTS
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATION 5 0.0005 Maximum allowable for an 8-hour day.
PPM PERCENT TIME EFFECT 20 0.002 Coughing and irritation to eyes, nose» and
10 0.001 Maximum allowable for 8-hour day throat
50-100 0.005-0.010 1 hour Sub-acute poisoning- 1. Mild eye irritation 2, 150 0.015 May be endured for several minutes.
mild respiratory irritation
200-300 0.02-0.03 1 hour Sub-acute poisoning 1.marked eye irritation 2. 400 0.04 Impossible to breathe.
marked respiratory irritation
500-700 0.05-0. 07 5-1 hour Sub-acute to acute poisoning—
unconsciousness
1000-2000 0.10 -0.20 Minutes Acute poisoning - 1. Unconsciousness 2. death

AMMONIA
Ammonia is a colorless gas with a soapy rotten taste with a chemical formula NH3. It consists of
hydrogen and nitrogen. In its aqueous form, it is called ammonium hydroxide. This inorganic
compound has a pungent smell. In its concentrated form, it is dangerous and caustic.
Ammonia is lighter than air with a density of 0.769 kg/m3 (specific gravity – 0.59) at STP and
molecular weight of 17 g/mol. It is widely used as a fertilizer. It is also used in the manufacturing of
explosives such as nitrocellulose and TNT. Also, it is used in the production of soda ash and in the
Ostwald process to get nitric acid.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN
Nitrogen, occurring as it does in normal air, is physiologically inert; however, under certain conditions it
will form several oxides, some of which are extremely toxic. The most common are nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide. Oxides of nitrogen are formed underground during blasting and from the operation of
internal-combustion engines. Nitric oxide is rapidly oxidized to nitrogen dioxide in the presence of
moisture and air and is therefore seldom found in significant amounts underground. Nitrogen dioxide is
not only the more common of the two but also the more toxic. The toxic oxides of nitrogen react with
moisture to form nitrous and nitric acid. It has a specific gravities of NO – 1.037 ; N2O – 1.530 ; NO2 –
1.59 and molecular weights of NO – 30.01 g/mol; N2O – 44.013 g/mol; NO2 – 46.0055 g/mol. Oxides
of nitrogen also has an irritating odour, red brown color, and bitter taste.

EFFECTS OF AMMONIA EFFECTS OF NITRIC OXIDE (NO)

CONCENTRATION EFFECTS CONCENTRATION (ppm) EFFECTS
24–50 ppm Irritation of the nose and throat within 10 min 25 Mild irritation of the eyes and respiratory tract
72–134 ppm Irritation of the nose and throat within 5 min 0–50 Mild odour
700 ppm Severe and immediate irritation of the respiratory system 60–150 Intense irritation accompanied by coughing
5000 ppm Respiratory spasms. Rapid suffocation NO can be fatal at this level even if exposure lasts only a
>10,000 ppm Pulmonary oedema. Fatal accumulation of fluid in the >200 ppm short time. It is extremely toxic. The effects can be hidden
lungs. Death for as long as 72
h
EFFECTS OF NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2)

RADON
CONCENTRATION (ppm) EFFECTS
5–10 ppm Sore throat
20 ppm Irritation of the eyes
100 ppm Cough. Danger within half an hour
150 ppm Dangerous even for short periods of exposure
Radon is a gaseous, chemically inert, radioactive product of the disintegration of radium. Found primarily 250 ppm Fatal even for short periods of exposure
in uranium mines, although present in trace amounts in other types of mine including coal mines (Rock et
al., 1975), radon diffuses from the rock strata into the mine environment, where the decay process
continues.
Radon is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is found naturally in rocks and soils. Rn222 is the commonest of all the radon isotopes (222Rn, 219Rn, 220Rn). Nowadays, this gas is considered as one of the
most significant causes of lung cancer (ICRP 2011; WHO 2009). It has a specific gravity of 9.73 and molecular weight of 222.01758 g/mol.
Among the protective measures that have been considered to reduce concentrations of this gas are (ICRP 2011): (a) adequate selection of the exploitation method (such as mining by remote control); (b)
intense ventilation; (c) general air filtering2; (d) individual protection equipment for dust filtering and (e) work rotation to reduce exposure time.

MINE TLV - TLV - TLV - FLAMMABILITY/

GASES SYMBOL GENERAL AND HARMFUL EFFECTS PRIMARY SOURCES TWA CL STEL EXPLOSIVE
RANGE
Oxygen O2 Nontoxic Normal air --- --- --- ---
Nitrogen N2 O2 displacement; Nontoxic and Simple Asphyxiant Normal air, Strata --- --- --- ---
Carbon Dioxide CO2 O2 displacement; Asphyxiant and Increased Breathing, Strata, Fire, IC 0.5 % 1.5 % 3.0 % ---
respiration Engines, Blasting
Carbon CO CO has a greater affinity for haemoglobin than Fires and Explosions, IC 0.005 % 0.04 % 200 ppm 12.5 – 74.5 %
Monoxide oxygen does; Toxic and Explosive Engines, Oxidation
Methane CH4 O2 displacement; Asphyxiant and Explosive Strata, Blasting, IC Engines --- --- --- 5 -15 %
Hydrogen H2 Displacement of O2; Explosive Water on a Hot Fire, --- --- --- 4 – 74.2 %
Batteries
Hydrogen H2S Paralysis of the respiratory system; Toxic and Strata, Strata Water, 10 ppm 15 ppm 15 ppm 4.3 – 45.5 %
Sulfide Explosive Blasting
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 Formation of sulphuric acid, effect similar to that of Burning Sulfide Ore, IC 2 ppm 10 ppm 5 ppm ---
NO2; Toxic Engines
Oxides of Irritates the respiratory system’s moist surfaces Blasting, IC Engines 50 ppm --- --- ---
Nitrogen NO because nitrous and nitric acids form when NO
comes into contact with water; Toxic
NO2 Formation of nitric acid in lungs and blood plasma, Diesel Engines, Explosions, 3 ppm 5 ppm --- ---
which can cause death; Toxic Blasting
N2O Toxic Blasting, IC Engines 50 ppm --- --- ---
Ammonia NH3 Formation of nitric acid on the respiratory tract’s Reaction of ANFO with 25 ppm --- 35 ppm ---
moist surface cement
Radon Rn Radioactive Strata 1 WL --- --- ---
Source: McPherson, 1993
• TLV-TWA - Threshold Limit Value – Time Weighted Average (Average concentration of pollutant, for eight hours a day or forty hours a week, to which the majority of workers can be exposed
without suffering from adverse effects.)
• TLV-CL – Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling Limit (Concentration of the contaminant that must not be exceeded at any time during the working day.)
• TLV-STEL – Threshold Limit Value – Short Term Exposure Level (Exposure at or above this level should not last more than fifteen minutes; such exposure should not be repeated more than four
times per day, and there should be a break of at least an hour between such exposures.)

As air travels through a ventilation circuit in an underground mine, it may be become contaminated with one or more potentially harmful gases. These gases
came from a variety of sources and must be carefully monitored to prevent mine workers from being exposed. Because ventilation systems must be designed to
eliminate the hazards created by these gases, it is important for ventilation engineers to be familiar with the gases that may be present, their sources, and the
hazards associated with them. All of the hazardous gases can cause serious health issues and fatalities if they are present in significant quantities. Fortunately,
modern ventilation systems in underground mines have made great steps in limiting worker exposure and creating an overall safer working environment.