PID CONTROLLERS

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
CONTROLLERS

A controller is a device that generates an output signal based on the input

signal it receives.
The input signal is actually an error signal, which is the difference between
the measured variable and the desired value as can be shown in feedback
control system ( Fig.1).

Figure 1
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID CONTROLLERS

• A sensor measures and transmits the

current value of the process
variable (PV) back to the controller.

• Controller error (e(t)) at current time t is

computed as set-point (SP) minus measured
process variable as in (1). e(t) = SP – PV
(1)

• The controller uses this e(t) in a control

algorithm to compute a new controller output
signal.
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID CONTROLLERS

• The controller output signal is sent to the final

control element (e.g. valve, pump, heater, fan)
causing it to change.

• Thechange in the final control

element causes a change in a
manipulated variable.

• The change in the manipulated variable (e.g.

flow rate of liquid or gas) causes a change in
the PV

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID CONTROLLER
A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller or
three term controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism widely
used in industrial control systems and a variety of other applications
requiring continuously modulated control.

A PID controller continuously calculates an error value e(t) as the difference

between a desired set point (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and
applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative
terms (denoted P, I, and D respectively) which give the controller its name.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID CONTROLLER
The first theoretical analysis and practical application was in the
field of automatic steering systems for ships, developed from the
early 1920s onwards. It was then used for automatic process
control in manufacturing industry, where it was widely implemented
in pneumatic, and then electronic, controllers. Today there is
universal use of the PID concept in applications requiring accurate
and optimized automatic control.

PID control is widely used in all areas where control is

applied (solves 90%of all control problems).

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CONTROL SYSTEM
ACCURACY: Accuracy must be very high as error arising should
be corrected. Accuracy can be improved by the use of feedback
element.

SENSITIVITY: A good control system senses quick changes in

the output due to an environment, parametric changes, internal and
external disturbances.

NOISE: Noise is an unwanted signal and a good control system

should be sensitive to these type of disturbances.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CONTROL SYSTEM
STABILITY: The stable systems has bounded input and bounded output. A
good control system should response to the undesirable changes in the
stability.

BANDWIDTH: To obtain a good frequency response, bandwidth of a system

should be large.

SPEED: A good control system should have high speed that is the output of the
system should be fast as possible.

OSCILLATION: For a good control system oscillation in the output should

be constant or at least has small oscillation.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
CONTROLLER MODES
1. ON-OFF controller/Two position controller
2. Three-position controller
3. Proportional Action Control
4. Integral/Reset Action Control
5. Derivative/Rate Action Control
6. P+I Control
7. P+D Control
8. P+I+D Control

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
CONTROLLER MODES

P_Controller • P depends on the present error

I _Controller • I on the accumulation of past errors

D_Controller • D is a prediction of future errors, based on current rate

of change
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF P, I, AND D CONTROLLERS
A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the
rise time and will reduce but never eliminate the steady state error.

An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the

steady- state error for a constant or step input, but it may make the
transient response slower.

A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the

stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the
transient response.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF P, I, AND D CONTROLLERS
PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on
change of the controller input (D mode), increase in control signal
to lead error towards zero (I mode) and suitable action inside
control error area to eliminate oscillations (P mode).

This combination of {Present + Past + Future} makes it

possible to control the application very well.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
In a proportional controller the output (also called the actuating/control
signal) is directly proportional to the error signal. The position of Kp can be as
shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2. Proportional controller

Control signal = Kp * e(t) (2)

If the error signal is a voltage, and the control signal is also a voltage, then a
proportional controller is just an amplifier.
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
PROPERTIES:
In a proportional controller, steady state error tends to SSE = 1 / (1 + K pG (0))
depend inversely upon the proportional gain, so if the
gain is made larger the error goes down as in (3). Where SSE is the steady state error

• Proportional controller helps in reducing the steady state error,

thus makes the system more stable.
• Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster
with the help of these controllers.
• P controller has the advantage of reducing down the steady state
error of the system , but along with that it also has some serious
disadvantages.
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

As a summary, you can

understand that the high
value of ‘K’ will reduce the
stability (it is a disadvantage)
but improves the steady-
state performance (i.e.
reduce the steady-state error,
which will be an advantage).

Fig.3. Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for

three values of K p (Ki and K d held constant)

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Due to presence of these controllers, we have
some offsets in the system.
2. Proportional controllers also increase the maximum overshoot of
the system.
3. It directly amplifies process noise.

Note: To avoid these errors and to make the controller more accurate and practical, we
use the advanced and modified version of it known as the Proportional Integral Controllers
(PI) and Proportional Derivative Controllers (PD).

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
INTEGRAL CONTROLLER
An integral term increases action in relation not only to the error but also the
time for which it has persisted. So, if applied force is not enough to bring the
error to zero, this force will be increased as time passes.

A pure "I" controller could bring the error to zero, however, it would be both slow
reacting at the start (because action would be small at the beginning, needing
time to get significant), brutal (the action increases as long as the error is
positive, even if the error has started to approach zero), and slow to end (when
the error switches sides, this for some time will only reduce the strength of the
action from "I", not make it switch sides as well), prompting overshoot and
oscillations (see Fig.4).

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
INTEGRAL CONTROLLER
An integral term increases action in relation not only to the error but also the
time for which it has persisted. So, if applied force is not enough to bring the
error to zero, this force will be increased as time passes.

Moreover, it could even move the system out of zero error: remembering that the
system had been in error, it could prompt an action when not needed. An
alternative formulation of integral action is to change the electric current in
small persistent steps that are proportional to the current error. Over time the
steps accumulate and add up dependent on past errors; this is the discrete-time
equivalent to integration.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
INTEGRAL CONTROLLER

As a summary, For an
Integral Controller, adjusting
Ki directly affects the trade-
off between response speed,
steady-state error, and
stability:

Fig.4. Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for three

values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
A derivative term does not consider the error (meaning it cannot bring it to
zero: a pure D controller cannot bring the system to its set-point), but the rate
of change of error, trying to bring this rate to zero. It aims at flattening the error
trajectory into a horizontal line, damping the force applied, and so reduces
overshoot (error on the other side because too great applied force). Applying
too much impetus when the error is small and is reducing will lead to
overshoot.

After overshooting, if the controller were to apply a large correction in the opposite direction
and repeatedly overshoot the desired position, the output would oscillate around the set-point
in either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. If the amplitude of the oscillations increase
with time, the system is unstable. If they decrease, the system is stable. If the oscillations
remain at a constant magnitude, the system is marginally stable. This can be illustrated in
Fig.5.
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

As a summary, A derivative
controller is effective at
improving stability and
reducing overshoot.

Fig.5. Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for three

values of Kd (Kp and Ki held constant)

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID MATHEMATICAL FORM
The overall control function can be expressed mathematically as in (4)

d e (t )
u (t ) = kp e (t ) + ki  e ( )d  + k d (4)
dt
where Kp , Ki , and Kd , all non-negative, denote the coefficients for the proportional,
integral, and derivative terms respectively (sometimes denoted P, I, and D).
In the standard form of the equation Ki and Kd are respectively replaced by
Kp/Ti and Kd*Td ; the advantage of this being that Ti and Td have some
understandable physical meaning, as they represent the integration time and the
derivative time respectively the above relationship is obtained from parallel
configuration of PID controller as illustrated in Fig.6.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID MATHEMATICAL FORM

Fig.6. Parallel configuration of PID controller

Although a PID controller has three control terms, some applications use only one or two terms
to provide the appropriate control. This is achieved by setting the unused parameters to zero
and is called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the other control actions. PI controllers
are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the
absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target value.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
LIMITATIONS OF PID CONTROL
While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, and often
perform satisfactorily without any improvements or only coarse tuning, they can
perform poorly in some applications, and do not in general provide optimal
control. The fundamental difficulty with PID control is that it is a feedback
control system, with constant parameters, and no direct knowledge of the
process, and thus overall performance is reactive and a compromise. While
PID control is the best controller in an observer without a model of the
process, better performance can be obtained by overtly modeling the
actor of the process without resorting to an observer.

PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop gains must be
reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or hunt about the control set
point value.
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
LIMITATIONS OF PID CONTROL
They also have difficulties in the presence of non-linearities, may trade-
off regulation versus response time, do not react to changing process
behavior (say, the process changes after it has warmed up), and have lag
in responding to large disturbances.

The most significant improvement is to incorporate feed-forward control

with knowledge about the system, and using the PID only to control error.
Alternatively, PIDs can be modified in more minor ways, such as by
changing the parameters (either gain scheduling in different use
cases or adaptively modifying them based on performance),
improving measurement (higher sampling rate, precision, and accuracy, and
low-pass filtering if necessary), or cascading multiple PID controllers.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
LIMITATIONS OF PID CONTROL
Closed-loop Response performance depends on the effects of PID
parameters as can be shown in the following table when the parameters are
increased as can be shown in table1.
Table1. Increasing PID controller parameters with the performance of the closed loop
parameter Rise time Overshoot Settling time SSE Stability
Kp decrease increase Small change decrease degrade
Ki decrease increase increase Eliminate degrade
Kd Minor change decrease decrease No effect Improve if
Kd small

• Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because P, I and D gains are dependent of each other.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
TUNING PARAMETERS
How much correction should be made? The magnitude of the correction
(change in controller output) is determined by the proportional mode of the
controller.

How long the correction should be applied? The duration of the

adjustment to the controller output is determined by the integral mode of the
controller.

How fast should the correction be applied? The speed at which a

correction is made is determined by the derivative mode of the controller.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID TUNING ALGORITHM
Closed-loop stability: The closed-loop system output remains bounded for
bounded input.

Adequate performance: The closed-loop system tracks reference

changes and suppresses disturbances as rapidly as possible. The larger the
loop bandwidth (the frequency of unity open-loop gain), the faster the controller
responds to changes in the reference or disturbances in the loop.

Adequate robustness: The loop design has enough gain margin and phase
margin to allow for modeling errors or variations in system dynamics.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID TUNING ALGORITHM
Users of control systems are frequently faced with the task of adjusting the
controller parameters to obtain a desired behavior. There are many different
ways to do this. One approach is to go through the conventional
steps of modeling and control design as described in the previous section.
Since the PID controller has so few parameters, a number of special
empirical methods have also been developed for direct adjustment of the
controller parameters. The first tuning rules were developed by Ziegler
and Nichols. Their idea was to perform a simple experiment, extract some
features of process dynamics from the experiment and determine the
controller parameters from the features

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID TUNING ALGORITHM
Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules (Table2). (a) The step response methods give the parameters
in terms of the intercept a and the apparent time delay τ. (b) The frequency response
method gives controller parameters in terms of critical gain kc and critical period Tc.
Table2. Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules
Type Kp Ti Td Type Kp Ti Td
P 1/a P 0.5kc
PI 0.9/a 3τ PI 0.4kc 0.8Tc
PID 1.2/a 2τ 0.5τ PID 0.6kc 0.5Tc 0.125Tc

(a) Step response method (b) Frequency response method

by extensive simulation of a range of representative processes. A controller was

tuned manually for each process, and an attempt was then made to correlate the controller
parameters with a and τ
PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
ELECTRONIC ANALOG CONTROLLERS
Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within
more complex electronic systems, for example, the head
positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a
power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a
modern seismometer. Discrete electronic analogue controllers
have been largely replaced by digital controllers using
microcontrollers or FPGAs, to implement PID algorithms.
However, discrete analog PID controllers are still used in niche
applications requiring high-bandwidth and low-noise
performance, such as laser-diode controllers.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
ELECTRONIC PID CONTROLLERS
Electronic PID controllers can be obtained using operational amplifiers and
passive components like resistors and capacitors. A typical scheme is shown in
Fig.7.

Fig. 7. Electronic PID controller

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID CONTROLLERS AND COMPENSATION
The series configuration of PID control consists of a proportional plus
derivative (PD) compensator cascaded with a proportional plus integral (PI)
compensator.

The purpose of the PD compensator is to improve the transient response

while maintaining the stability.

The purposeof the PI compensator is to improve the steady state accuracy of

the system without degrading the stability.

Since speed of response, accuracy, and stability are what is needed for
satisfactory response, cascading PD and PI will suffice.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
PID CONTROLLERS AND COMPENSATION
Lead/Lag compensation is very similar to PD/PI, or PID control.

The lead compensator plays the same role as the PD

controller, reshaping the root locus to improve the transient response.

Lag and PI compensation are similar and have the same response: to
improve the steady state accuracy of the closed-loop system.

Both PID and lead/lag compensation can be used

successfully, and can be combined.

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)
 PID CONTROLLERS
END OF SLIDES

Practice problems with NISE!

PID CONTROLLERS Silverio V. Magday Jr, ECE, ECT, CSPE, MEngEE (u)