FALLACIES IN THE LANGUAGE or LINGUISTIC FALLACIES These are the fallacies that are due to the ambiguity or lack

of preciseness in the words used to express ideas. 1) Equivocation- due to the ambiguous use of word in a sentence or in an argument. Example: Funny as it may seem, I saw a signage somewhere in Colon that entails "fine for parking here", and since it was fine, I parked there.

2) Amphiboly occurs when a phrase or sentence is ambiguous because of faulty grammatical construction.

Example: Last Saturday, were fond of making jokes with my barkada. Until somebody inserted and said, You know guys I already climbed the wall climbing and rode the horse back riding.

3) Accent- a fallacy which occurs when we make conclusions based on the faulty emphasis on certain parts of the sentences.

Example: We must stick in every decision that we take. 4) Composition- consists in taking together what should be taken separately or in taking the properties of the parts as properties of the whole. Example: My dad once said that the fast craft going to Camiguin Isla uses more fuel than a lantsa (small ferry). Therefore, the fast craft uses up more of the available fuel in the world than do all the lantsas (small ferries). 5) Division- consists in taking separately what should be taken together or in taking the properties of the whole as properties of the parts. Example: It has been known that United States is the richest country in terms of their GDP. My chatmate is from United States. So, he is rich. 6) Figure of speech- consists in arguing from a similarity in word structure to a similarity in meaning.

Example: Clich as it goes, what is immaterial is not material. What is insoluble is not soluble. Therefore, what is inflammable is not flammable.

FALLACIES NOT IN THE LANGUAGE These are the fallacies that are no longer due to the ambiguity in the words used to express our ideas, but to the confusion about the things that are considered in the argument. 1) Accident- consists in the confusion of the accidental and the essential or necessary elements of a thing. Example: If the bus hostage crime of Rolando Mendoza before traumatized all the bus-passengers. Then, we must not ride a bus anymore. 2) Absolute and qualified statement- consists in arguing from a statement which is generally true to a specific case which happens to be an exception, or from a statement which is true in a special instance to a general truth. Example: In our science class before, my teacher told me that water will boil at 212 Fahrenheit. Does that mean that water will also boil at 212 Fahrenheit in Mayon Volcano? 3) Begging the question- is an argument that assumes the truth of the conclusion to be proved. a. Circulus in probando consists in using as a premise the very conclusion which is being proved. Example: He suffers because of his cancer. And I know he has cancer because I always see him suffering. b. Assumption non probata- consists in using a false principle or statement as an unexpressed premise. Example: Filipinos never saw a snow. Therefore, snow is just a delusion.

c. Complex question or loaded question- consists in asking a question which presupposes the truth. Example: Did your grade increase as a result of cheating?

4) Ignoring the issure or ignoratio elenchi- reffered ti as missing the point. It is proving something other than the point at issue.

a. Argumentum ad hominem- an argument that ignores the issue and attacks the person or characted of the one arguing. Example: If you are not dumb, then how come you dont understand simple lessons? i. Abusive ad hominem- fallacy that consists in making derogatory remarks about a person Example: You must not believe a third grader when he says that he will propose a policy to boost economy. He doesnt even have a job or experience. ii. Circumstantial ad hominem- attacking the persons circumstances and inferring that his claim is false. Example: In the newspaper, Manny Pangilinan firmly stated that poverty is the enemy and not the mining in Palawan, but that is false, since he is only saying that because he is one of the big profit earners in that not-yet-approved mining. iii. Ad Hominem based on incosistency- argues that a persons claim is false because it is inconsistent with what he said. Example: Now, you announce in the class that most of them passed in your Philosophy exam. But that is false, because you just said last week that the exam you gave to them was the hardest ever exam you made and that you estimated that there could only be 5 persons who will pass in that said exam. iv. Tu Quoque- fallacy that consists in refuting an argument by showing that the speaker himself is guilty of it.

Example: Teacher: Nobody must be late in this class or else you will be considered absent. Student: You should tell that thing first to yourself sir, not us, because obviously, you are the ones who is always late.

b. Argumentum ad misericordiam- an argument appealing to pity. Example: ME to CITOM: Theres no reason to penalize me for driving too fast because I was just on my way to the hospital to see my boyfriend who is in serious condition, for me to tell him that I will surely love him till the last breath of my life. c. Argumentum ad baculum- an argument appealing to force or might. Example: Teacher: To those people who wants to violate my rules in this class, just raise your hand and I will freely let you go out. d. Argumentum and ignorantiam- an argument appealing to ignorance. Example: In spite of all the talk between China and the Philippines, still not a single solution has been concluded about the ownership in Spratlys. We may assume, therefore, that this problem will truly last for many years to come. e. Argumentum ad verecundiam an argument appealing to authority. Example: Miriam Quiambao, a beauty queen, says that the essence of being beautiful is found on the inside of the person. Truly, shes a role model. Nobody can just refute that. f. Argumentum ad populum- an argument appealing to the people. Example: Madlang People, please vote for me. I really wanted to be the next PBB Star. Im so desperate to win the title, because Im so desperate to help my family, especially my mom who is in

the hospital right now. Its a matter of life and death. So, please vote for me. 5) False Cause- consists in assigning a wrong cause to a given effect. Example: She was declared as a Valedictorian in their batch because of the reputation of her father, being the part owner of the school. 6) Post hoc, ergo propter hoc- occurs when we invalidly conclude that because there is temporal sequence between events. Example: When a man will say, I love you to his girlfriend, the kiss always follows. Therefore, the kiss is the cause of him saying I love you. 7) False Alternatives- committed when the number of alternatives or possibilities regarding something that is erroneously assumed to be less than what it actually exists. Example: She keeps on opening a dirty and green conversation. We can therefore conclude that shes a maniac and she was already de-virginized. 8) False or weak analogy- occurs when the conditions for a sound analogy are not present. Example: Knife is like a blade- theyre both sharp that can be used to wound someone. And yet, it would be so improper to inhibit a person who will purchase a blade- so inhibiting a person to purchase a knife is equally so improper also. 9) Hasty or illicit generalization- consists in making a generalization on the basis of inadequate evidence or an insufficient number of particular cases. Example: My American cousin is spending vacation in the Philippines. The day he arrived in the NAIA airport, she immediately concluded, that the Philippines has the worst airport in the entire whole universe. 10)Subjectivism- consists in arguing that something is true merely because we believe or want it to be true. Example: Manny Pacquiao should not be declared winner in his last fight with Marquez.

11)Appeal to common belief- is committed when someone tries to establish a claim by citing that all or many people believe in it. Example: Corona should be impeached. After all, I saw a poll that shows 85% of all Filipinos wants Corona to be ousted in Judicial department. 12)Appeal to common practice- is closely related to the fallacy of appealing to a common belief. Example: We should go to Simala and ask for Gods guidance because it is almost Finals week. 13)Peer pressure- somewhat related to the appeal to a common belief. This consists in arguing that if your friends are good at something, you figure out that you are also good to give it a try. Example: I have to change my number two answer in Philo Assignment, because my friends have the same answers except me. 14)Appeal to spite or indignation- occurs when one discredits a person because he was unsupportive of the arguer. Example: Elizabeth: I must send Aqua a happy birthday message. Melissa: Have you forgotten last year? Remember, she didnt even waste her time to greet you on your 18th birthday. Elizabeth: Youre right. Im not going to send her a happy birthday message. 15)The horse laugh- committed when one attempts to refute or reject a claim by laughing at it. Example: She really thinks shes beautiful. Oh God! She must be dreaming. Haha! 16)Two wrongs make a right- is a form of pseudoreasoning intended to justify the claim that is all right for someone to do something disadvantageaous to another. Example: I know shes coming here in the house. And Im tired of cleaning my room just because of her. I wont be shy if my room is messy, because her room also is so messy when I got there.

17)Apple polishing- consists in trying to convince a person for or against a case by telling him something flattering. Example: Honey, youre the sweetest boyfriend I have in my life. Can you please buy that thing I want for my birthday? 18)Poisoning as well- consists in trying to refute a statement or argument by showing that the speaker has a nonrational motive for adopting it. Example: When an older child tells her mother whos thinking of buying a Barbie doll for the birthday of a younger sibling. The older child tells Mama, shes not yet ready for Barbie Dolls. She cant take good care of it. (Her real reason of saying that, is that she is envious of her youngers sissy getting a doll for her birthday. ) 19)Genetic Fallacy- occurs when one tries to refute a persons argument by somehow assailing or discrediting the cause of that persons belief rather than its justification. Example: My parents brought me up by believing that God exists. They told me He exists, so He must. 20)Slippery Slope- consists of an argument based on the claim that a certain fact will set off a chain reaction that will inevitably lead to an undesirable consequence. Example: We should protest the tuition hike! Surely, the next thing we wil know is that, they will be charging 50,000 next semester.

21)Smokescreen or red herring- is a form of pseudoreasoning in which the subject has been changed and the discussion is thrown of course. Example: I know that youre dealing with crisis today. Which is why Im here to give my proposals for you to take time considering it, maybe this will help. 22)Straw Man- a form of pseudoreasoning that occur when someone ignores and opponents actual position and presents in its palce a distorted or misrepresented version of that position.

Example: Im not forcing you to take up Law. As a matter of fact, Im just suggesting a six digit-profession that you should take that will perhaps attract you more in a monetary fashion. 23)Suppressing evidence or facts- consists particularly in directing ones attention only to those facts or evidences that clearly support an opinion, and diverting it away from those that either weaken or negate what is being asserted. Example: USC is a school that will truly delivers an unparalleled student experience. USC boasts their advancement of educating the youth in all manners and forms that enable students to take best advantage of their opportunities. 24)Argument from silence- this fallacy denies what is asserted as a fact because there is no written record to support it. Example: Elizabeth: I know the answer to that problem. Mel: What is it? Elizabeth: Im not telling you! Mel: Youre just saying that because you dont know. (Mels conclusion may not be justified: perhaps Elizabeth doesnt want to tell Mel) 25)Non Sequitur- literally means it does not follow. It is a kind of a miscellaneous category for fallacious arguments that do not fit the forms or patterns of the other fallacies. Example: Andrew is the cleverest student in the University. Therefore, he should be hailed as the campus hearthrob. ***