Dynamic complex modulus predictions of hot-mix

asphalt using a micromechanical-based finite

element model
Zhanping You and Qingli Dai
Abstract: A micromechanical-based finite element (FE) model was used to predict the dynamic complex modulus ( E*)
of the hot-mix asphalt (HMA). The microstructure of HMA was captured with a high resolution scanner. Two material
phases (aggregates and sand mastic) of HMA were modelled with finite elements. The sand mastic herein was composed
of fines and asphalt binder with some fine aggregates. The dynamic complex modulus of the sand mastic under different
temperatures and loading frequencies was measured in an experimental program. The corresponding principles were ap-
plied to bridge the elastic simulation and viscoelastic behavior with the input of the viscoelastic mastic properties. The
input parameters in the FE model include the dynamic complex modulus of the sand mastic, the elastic modulus of the
aggregates, and the microstructure of the HMA. The E* values of the HMA were measured and used to compare the E*
predicted from the FE model. It is found that the FE approach used in this paper has the ability to predict HMA dynamic
modulus across a range of temperatures and loading frequencies. The FE prediction of the E* was compared with a re-
cently developed discrete element modelling approach and found the E* prediction from these two approaches to be very
similar.
Key words: discrete element, micromechanical model, micromechanics, finite element model, dynamic complex modulus,
aggregate interlock, particle interaction, hot-mix asphalt, microstructure, sand mastic.
Resume : Un mode`le aux elements finis, base sur la micromecanique, a ete utilise pour predire le module dynamique
complexe (ou module complexe, E*) du melange bitumineux chaud. La microstructure du melange bitumineux chaud a ete
saisie avec un scanneur a` haute resolution. Deux phases materielles (agregats et mastic sableux) du melange bitumineux
chaud ont ete modelisees par des elements finis. Le mastic sableux dans ce cas est compose de fines et de liant asphaltique
avec une certaine quantite dagregats fins. Les E* du mastic sableux ont ete mesures a` differentes temperatures et differen-
tes frequences de charge dans un programme experimental. Les principes correspondants ont ete appliques pour faire le
lien entre la simulation elastique et le comportement viscoelastique par la saisie des proprietes viscoelastiques du mastic.
Les parame`tres saisis dans le mode`le aux elements finis comprennent le module dynamique (complexe) E* du mastic sa-
bleux, le module delasticite des agregats et la microstructure du melange bitumineux chaud. Les valeurs E* du melange
bitumineux chaud ont ete mesurees et utilisees pour comparer la valeur E* predite par le mode`le aux elements finis. Il
sest avere que lapproche aux elements finis utilisee dans cet article pouvait predire le module dynamique du melange bi-
tumineux chaud sur toute la plage de temperatures et de frequences de charge. La prevision des E* par elements finis a
ete comparee a` lapproche de modelisation aux elements finis discrets developpes recemment; il sest avere que la previ-
sion des E* par ces deux approches etait tre`s similaire.
Mots-cles : element discret, mode`le micromecanique, micromecanique, mode`le aux elements finis, module dynamique
complexe, embo tement des agregats, interaction des particules, melange bitumineux chaud, microstructure, mastic sableux.
[Traduit par la Redaction]
Background
Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is a highly heterogeneous material
composed of binder, fines, and aggregate as well as air
voids. The HMA has a heterogeneous multiphase nature and,
therefore, it is necessary to capture the HMA global behavior
by using the ingredients of the property (binder, fines, and
aggregate). Many researchers considered that micromechani-
cal models would be best suited to properly simulate HMA.
The development of micromechanical models started about a
hundred years ago, and some of the earliest contributions
included work by Voigt (1889), Einstein (1911), and Reuss
(1929). During the past hundred years, a number of research
studies have been conducted on micromechanical models,
including models with noninteracting particles and interact-
Received 11 November 2006. Revision accepted 03 May 2006.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjce.nrc.ca on
11 December 2007
Z. You.
1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive,
Houghton, MI 49931-1295, USA.
Q. Dai. Department of Mechanical Engineering Engineering
Mechanics, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend
Drive, Houghton, MI 49931-1295, USA.
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 30 April 2008.
1
Corresponding author (e-mail: zyou@mtu.edu).
1519
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 34: 15191528 (2007) doi:10.1139/L07-064 # 2007 NRC Canada
ing particles. In the models with noninteracting particles,
geometries were either specified or not specified. Detailed
explanations of these concepts were discussed in the work
done by Buttlar and You (2001). Of all the micromechani-
cal methods, finite element (FE) and discrete element (DE)
modelling were employed by a number of researchers in
the early 1990s in cemented particulate composites such as
the work by Stankowski (1990). Finite element modelling
of the HMA microstructure potentially allows accurate
modelling of aggregate and mastic microstructure geome-
try. Some research work was conducted using finite element
techniques, these include the contributions by Sepehr et al.
(1994), Bazant et al. (1990), Mora (1992), Sadd et al.
(2004), Budhu et al. (1997), Guddati et al. (2002), Bahia et
al. (1999), Papagiannakis et al. (2002), Mustoe and Griffiths
(1998), Kose et al. (1999), Masad and Bahia (2002), Masad
et al. (2001, 2002), Dai and Sadd (2004), Dai et al. (2005),
Dai (2004), Dai et al. (2006), and You and Buttlar (2006).
A compressive review of the micromechanical models for
HMA was provided in a recent paper in the Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering (You and Dai 2007).
In recent years, some researchers have used the DE
approach to model cemented particulate materials, these in-
clude Rothenburg et al. (1992), Trent and Margolin (1994),
Chang and Meegoda (1997, 1999), Ullidtz (2001), and
Buttlar and You (2001). Most recently, You and Buttlar
(2004, 2005, 2006) employed DE to predict the properties
of HMA. The three-dimensional (3-D) microstructure of
HMA was investigated using X-ray computed tomography
by Wang et al. (2004) and Masad et al. (2002). These in-
vestigations facilitated the development of 3-D microme-
chanical modelling of HMA.
However, microstructure-based finite element models have
not been successfully used to predict complex properties of
highly heterogeneous asphalt mixtures. This paper will focus
on demonstrating the modelling of the microstructure of the
asphalt mixture and the model prediction of the dynamic
modulus of the mixture. The following sections will discuss
detailed objectives; scope; asphalt mixture specimen prepara-
tion; modelling of the microstructure using finite element
models, dynamic complex modulus prediction, and results;
and, finally, the aggregate modulus sensitivity analysis.
Objectives
The objectives of this paper are to (I) use the finite ele-
ment method (FEM) to predict the dynamic complex mod-
ulus (E*) of HMA by modelling the internal structure of
the HMA, (ii) describe the experimental tests in the com-
plex modulus measurement for the HMA and its ingredi-
ents (sand mastic and aggregate), and (iii) compare the
numerical simulation results with the experimental meas-
urements and a discrete element model prediction of the
HMA.
Scope
In this study, the Superpave gyratory compacted HMA
used was a 19 mm mixture (i.e., nominal maximum aggre-
gate size of 19 mm). The HMA was modelled as a compo-
site with very irregularly shaped aggregates bonded with
sand mastic. The microstructure of the mixture was obtained
from the two-dimensional (2-D) scanned image of a sawn
surface of a mixture specimen. The sand mastic was a
1.18 mm fine sand mix (i.e., submix). This study focused on
the modelling of HMA at several preselected low and inter-
mediate temperatures, and at preselected loading frequen-
cies. A correspondence principle (Flugge 1975) was applied
to predict the viscoelastic properties of the asphalt mixtures
by inputting the viscoelastic mastic dynamic modulus to
the computational model. The prediction approach can be
used in the dynamic modulus, relaxation modulus, or creep
stiffness (inverse of creep compliance). The paper demon-
strated the application of finite element models in the pre-
diction of the dynamic modulus because of their importance
in the Guide for mechanistic-empirical design of new and
rehabilitated pavement structures of the National Cooper-
ative Highway Research Program (NCHRP 2004) and the
feasibility of a pavement performance-based relationship
(Witczak 2005).
Correspondence principle
The correspondence principle (Flugge 1975) bridges the
linear and viscoelastic behavior through Laplace transforma-
tion. This correspondence can be made by taking an appro-
priate transformation of the governing field and boundary
equations of the viscoelastic problems. Schapery (1984) pro-
posed the extended elasticviscoelastic correspondence
principle to linear and nonlinear viscoelastic behavior.
The linear constitutive behavior for a generalized Max-
well model can be expressed as a hereditary integral
1 o
Ij

Z
t
0
Et t
de
Ij
t
dt
dt
where o
Ij
and e
Ij
are the physical stress and strain, and
E(t t) is the relaxation modulus, which is expressed as
2 Et r
X
M
m1
E
0
E
m
e
tt/,
m

, and ,
m

j
m
E
m
In these equations, E
m
, j
m
, and, ,
m
are the spring constant,
dashpot viscosity, and relaxation time, respectively, for the
mth Maxwell element. For the uniaxial displacement load-
ing, pseudo strain can be obtained from a convolution of
integrals such that
3 e
R

1
E
R
Z
t
0
Et t
0e
0t
dt
where e
R
is the pseudo strain, and E
R
is the reference elastic
modulus with an arbitrary constant value. Using the defini-
tion of pseudo strain, the linear viscoelastic behavior can be
rewritten as:
4 o
Ij
EE
R
, ve
R
Ij
A correspondence can be found between pseudo strain
eq. [3] and elastic stressstrain relationship eq. [4]. This
approach provides a simplified and efficient way to solve
the viscoelastic problem.
A computational effort was conducted to compare the
simulation results by using the correspondence principle and
1520 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 34, 2007
#
2007 NRC Canada
direct viscoelastic analysis. The uniaxial sinusoidal displace-
ment with loading frequency f = 0.1 Hz was imposed to a
linear viscoelastic media with a three-parameter Maxwell
model. The 2-D dimensions of this computation model are
40 mm in width and 60 mm in height. For this three-parameter
Maxwell model, the relaxation modulus can be written as
5 Et t E
0
E
1
e
tt/,
1

The three-parameter constitutive properties include

E
0
412.8 MPa, E
1
1232 MPa, and ,
1
6.5 s, which
were tested by Gibson et al. (2003). The viscoelastic prop-
erties are identical for both calculations. For the computa-
tion using the correspondence principle, the pseudo
displacement was calculated using the integration of the
multiplication of relaxation modulus and loading displace-
ment rate with the time t:
6 u
R

1
E
R
Z
t
0
Et t
0u
0t
dt
The elastic simulation was conducted with the input of the
pseudo displacement to calculate the viscoelastic reaction
force under the uniaxial compression displacement loading.
A displacement-based incremental finite element approach
was developed for the linear and damage-coupled visco-
elastic materials by Dai et al. (2006). The direct viscoelas-
tic analysis was conducted to calculate the reaction force
under the same sinusoidal displacement loading. Figure 1
shows the imposed sinusoidal displacement loading and re-
action force results obtained by using the correspondence
principle and direct analysis approaches. The reaction force
using the correspondence principle and direct viscoelastic
analysis is identical at the selected loading frequency.
The magnitude of complex modulus was calculated using
the stress (applied stress or maximum stress minus seating
stress) dividing recoverable strain for the last ten loading
cycles:
7 jE

j
1
10
X
n
cyclen9
Appliedstress Seatingstress
Recoverable strain
where n is the total loading cycles. These comparisons indi-
cate that the correspondence principle can be applied to
solve viscoelastic problems with the inputted viscoelastic
parameters. In this paper, the complex moduli of asphalt
mastic were measured in an experimental test program as
described in the following section, then the viscoelastic
mastic complex modulus and elastic aggregate stiffness
were incorporated in microstructure-based discrete element
models to predict the mixture complex moduli. The corre-
sponding principle was applied by submitting viscoelastic
mastic complex modulus to the elastic simulation. Thus, the
mixture behavior can be determined from the microstructure
and ingredient properties. This approach can be applied for
studying other mixture properties such as creep compliance
and stiffness of asphalt mixture.
Specimen preparation and laboratory tests
Sand mastic, stone cylinders, and aggregated asphalt mix-
ture (i.e., HMA) specimens were prepared to measure the
dynamic (complex) modulus through uniaxial compressive
tests. The sand mastic cylinder, limestone rock cylinder, and
the HMA specimens were prepared to conduct a compres-
sive test, as shown in Fig. 2. A brief discussion of the
specimen tests is provided below.
The HMA used in this study contained an asphalt content
of 5.8% (by weight of the mix). The aggregate gradation for
the HMA is shown in Fig. 3. The sand mastic was com-
prised of the portion of the aggregate gradation finer than
1.18 mm combined with the volume of binder normally
used in the entire HMA. Therefore, the relative asphalt con-
tent for the sand mastic compared to the mixture of the sand
mastic increased because of the removal of the coarse aggre-
gates. In other words, the coarse aggregates taken out from
the original mixture do not carry asphalt. Therefore, by
computation, the asphalt content in the sand mastic is
14.4% by weight of the sand mastic. The sand mastic was
flowable at compaction temperatures because of the high
percentage of asphalt binder. To prepare the mastic speci-
mens, a specially designed aluminum mold was used so that
the mastic specimen formed a cylindrical shape at the com-
paction temperature. After the sand mastic specimen cooled
down in the mold, the specimen was demolded. The speci-
men size was 75 mm in diameter and 175 mm in height.
After the two ends were cut off, the final dimensions of the
cylindrical specimen was 75 mm in diameter and approxi-
mately 150 mm in height. The dynamic complex modulus
of both the sand mastic and the HMA were tested across a
range of loading frequencies (0.1, 1, 5, and 10 Hz) and test
temperatures (0, 10, and 20 8C ). The measurements of
HMA were compared to the FEM prediction to evaluate
the modelling approach discussed herein. The measure-
ments of the sand mastic were used as input parameters for
the FE models. In the E* tests, the total strain on the
HMA and mastic were controlled within the linear viscoe-
lastic range. The measurements were verified by varying
the compressive load to make the changes of the axial
strains. In addition, based on the study by Airey et al.
(2004), the linearity bulk strain criterion for the asphalt
mixtures was approximately 100 microstrain, with the
binders at least 10 000 microstrain. In the study herein,
these carefully selected test temperatures and loading
amplitudes did not result in significant permanent strain
and nonlinear deformation for the sand mastic compressive
uniaxial test in the laboratory.
The aggregate and fines used in this study were lime-
stone. Aggregate moduli were measured in the laboratory
through a uniaxial compressive test of limestone across a
range of loading frequencies (0.05 to 10 Hz) at a tempera-
ture of 20 8C. It should be noted here that a wider range of
loading frequencies was used for the aggregate (rock) tests.
It was assumed that temperature was not a significant factor
to affect the aggregate moduli. Two different types of geo-
logical limestone in the same location were collected, one
dark and the other brightly colored (cored from different
depth). The limestone moduli measured in the lab are sum-
marized in Table 1. The measurements were quite different
for the two types of limestone. In addition, for a specific
type of limestone, it appeared that the average moduli were
not significantly different across a range of loading frequen-
cies, even though, in general, higher frequency yields higher
moduli. The aggregate blend used in this study was a mix of
You and Dai 1521
#
2007 NRC Canada
two types of the geological rocks, even though it was very
difficult to track this type of information in aggregate pro-
duction, transport, and HMA production. For this study, a
modulus of 55.5 GPa was estimated and used for the lime-
stone aggregates.
The E* of the asphalt mastic across a range of loading
frequencies (0.1, 1, 5, and 10 Hz) and test temperatures
(0, 10, and 20 8C) were measured and used as input para-
meters in the FE models. The moduli of sand mastic and
HMA are shown in Fig. 4. As discussed previously, the sand
mastic moduli were input for the model computation and
the HMA moduli were used for the comparison with simu-
lation results.
Modelling hot-mix asphalt microstructure
using finite element models
In this study, the microstructure of the mixture was obtained
from a 2-D image of a cross section of an HMA specimen.
Figure 5 shows the HMA (nominal maximum aggregate
size of 19 mm) image and aggregate skeleton (aggregate
size are larger than 1.18 mm) after image processing using
Fig. 1. Comparison of reaction force using the correspondence principle and direct viscoelastic analysis: (a) imposed sinusoidal compression
displacement with loading frequency f = 0.1 Hz and (b) reaction force because of compression displacement.
Fig. 2. Specimens (with gage points and extensometer) to measure axial strain response when a sinusoidal load is applied: (a) sand mastic
(sand mixture) specimen, (b) limestone rock specimen, and (c) aggregated asphalt mixture specimen.
1522 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 34, 2007
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2007 NRC Canada
Image Pro Plus image analysis software. The aggregate
distribution for the slices of images was then analyzed.
Figure 6 shows the aggregate skeleton of a piece of HMA,
where the sand mastic subdomain includes the portion of
aggregate gradation finer than 1.18 mm with the volume
of the asphalt binder. Multiphase asphalt materials, includ-
ing very irregular aggregates and complex distributed mas-
tic, were divided into different subdomains. Within the
subdomains (aggregates and mastic), and along the sub-
domain boundaries, finite element mesh was generated.
Finite elements in the neighboring domains shared the
nodes on irregular boundaries, and therefore the displace-
Fig. 3. Aggregate gradation of the mixture used in this study.
Table 1. Aggregate dynamic complex modulus (GPa) of limestone
at 20 8C (each replicate has four strain readings).
Frequency
(Hz)
Rep. 1
(GPa)
Rep. 2
(GPa)
Average
(GPa)
Deviation
(GPa)
COV
(%)
Limestone 1 (Geology bright)
0.05 36.39 32.86 34.63 2.50 7.2%
0.1 36.44 32.84 34.64 2.55 7.4%
1 37.02 34.00 35.51 2.13 6.0%
2 34.21 30.51 32.36 2.61 8.1%
5 37.79 34.17 35.98 2.56 7.1%
10 38.33 34.48 36.41 2.73 7.5%
Limestone 2 (Geology dark)
0.05 88.04 77.78 82.91 7.25 8.7%
0.1 89.08 80.75 84.91 5.89 6.9%
1 88.66 80.22 84.44 5.97 7.1%
2 87.67 80.27 83.97 5.23 6.2%
5 91.82 83.64 87.73 5.78 6.6%
10 87.87 85.14 86.50 1.93 2.2%
Note: Rep., replicate; COV, coefficient of variation.
Fig. 4. The E* measurements for the sand mastic and hot-mix as-
phalt across a range of temperatures (0, 10, and 20 8C) and load-
ing frequencies (0.1, 1, 5, and 10 Hz). HMA, hot-mix asphalt.
Fig. 5. Hot-mix asphalt (nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS)
19 mm) image and aggregate skeleton (aggregate size is larger than
1.18 mm) after image processing: (a) optical scanned image and (b)
coarse aggregate distribution.
Fig. 6. Aggregate skeleton and finite element meshes (aggregate
size is larger than 1.18 mm): (a) microstructure of aggregate skele-
ton and mastic distribution; (b) finite element meshes for the mi-
crostructure of an asphalt mixture.
You and Dai 1523
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2007 NRC Canada
ments of neighboring subdomains were connected through
the shared nodes. Figure 6 also shows the fine finite ele-
ment meshes in the aggregates and mastic. The density of
the meshes in aggregates and mastic was optimized to re-
duce the total element numbers and computation speed. It
is expected that the computational work will be much more
time consuming in 3-D modelling when the 3-D micro-
structure is available in the follow-up study.
After the FE mesh was generated, a uniaxial compression
test was simulated. Asphalt mastic complex moduli at differ-
ent loading frequencies and test temperatures were used as
input parameters in the FE models. The specimen responses
including uniaxial stress and strain were recorded to com-
pute the HMA moduli (macro property) during compressive
loading. For example, the mastic modulus at 20 8C, load-
ing frequency of 1 Hz, and aggregate modulus of 55.5 GPa
were input into the simulation; then the HMA modulus was
predicted at the same temperature and loading frequency.
The HMA moduli from laboratory measurements and FE
prediction at several preselected temperatures and loading
frequencies were compared in this study, similar to the
approach used by You and Buttlar (2004, 2005, 2006). The
moduli measurements of viscoelastic mastic material vary
with loading frequencies and temperatures. Thus, the HMA
moduli prediction with the mastic properties input included
the frequencytemperature dependent viscoelastic proper-
ties. Therefore, the correspondence principle bridged the
elastic simulation and viscoelastic response through the vis-
coelastic mastic moduli, as discussed in a previous section.
The approach used in this study was indirectly validated
by the favorable match between simulation results and pre-
dictions from discrete element models, as discussed by You
and Buttlar (2004, 2005). It should be noted that separation
of the real and imaginary part of E* (or the amplitude and
phase angle) is desired to compare the measurements with
the numerical simulation, which is part of an on going
research study at Michigan Technological University. In
this paper, only the vector magnitude of E* is studied.
Dynamic complex modulus prediction of hot-
mix asphalt
Figure 7 shows the complex modulus prediction of the
HMA from four FE models with consideration of the micro-
structure. Each model represents a slice of the HMA image.
The predictions from different slices (images) of the HMA
are not identical, since the aggregate structures in the 2-D
plane are not identical. The aggregate skeleton microstruc-
ture, especially the aggregate shape, orientation, aggregate
interlock, and coarse aggregate volume concentration domi-
nate the E* prediction. The figure also shows the average
predicted E* of 13 different slices of the HMA. The coeffi-
cient of variation (COV) of the FE prediction of the 13 dif-
ferent slices ranges from 4% to 7% for all the temperatures
and frequencies. The relative variability (the standard devi-
ation of the data as a percentage of the mean) was not sig-
nificantly different.
Figure 8 shows the E* measurement of the HMA across a
range of loading frequencies and temperatures, where the
loading frequencies range from 0.1, 1, 5, to 10 Hz, and test
temperatures from 0, 10, to 20 8C. Comparing the meas-
urement and the prediction, it appears that the higher tem-
peratures give lower E* for the HMA over this range of
loading frequencies. The average difference between the
predictions and the measurements of E* is within 10% for
all the test temperatures and loading frequencies.
To evaluate the difference between FE predictions and
measurements, the paired t test was performed. This test was
performed to evaluate the mean difference between paired
Fig. 7. Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) dynamic complex modulus pre-
dicted from the microstructure of the HMA using finite element
modelling approach (slice 1 and 3 overlapped). E*, dynamic com-
plex modulus.
Fig. 8. Finite element model (FEM) prediction versus lab measure-
ments of dynamic complex modulus (E*) of hot-mix asphalt
(HMA) under three test temperatures and four loading frequencies:
(a) averaged E* versus loading frequencies at different tempera-
tures from FEM prediction and measurement and (b) averaged pre-
dicted E* versus measurements.
1524 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 34, 2007
#
2007 NRC Canada
observations when the paired differences follow a normal
distribution. In this case, the paired observations were the
predicted modulus and lab measurements at the same tem-
perature and loading frequency. Based upon paired t test
results as shown in Table 2, a 95% confidence interval for
the mean difference between the predictions and measure-
ments is within range (1.32, 1.87) GPa. The p-value
(p = 0.709) suggests that the data is consistent with
H
0
: j
d
0, that is, the predictions and the measurements
are similar. The finite element model (FEM) prediction
data (mean = 20.26) is very close to the measurement data
(mean = 19.98) over the four frequencies and three temper-
atures.
The comparison between the numerical simulation and lab
measurements indicates that the FE predictions were very
good for the loading frequency ranges from 0.1, 1, 5, to
10 Hz, and test temperatures from 0, 10, to 20 8C. It
should be noted that even though the lab tests were con-
ducted at the preselected loading frequencies and test tem-
peratures, the FE prediction was able to be used to predict
other loading frequencies and test temperatures.
Aggregate modulus sensitivity analysis in the
dynamic modulus prediction
Aggregate modulus sensitivity (effect to the mixture mod-
ulus) was investigated by a number of additional FE compu-
tations. When a stiffer aggregate was used, a stiffer HMA
was expected for a specific HMA microstructure and spe-
cific E* of sand mastic. When the E* of the sand mastic is
4.4 GPa for a given HMA microstructure, E* of the HMA
increases with the aggregate modulus. Figure 9a shows that
when the aggregate stiffness is soft, an increase in the stiff-
ness of the aggregate will significantly improve the E* of
the HMA. It was expected that a very large aggregate mod-
ulus may not significantly affect the prediction of E* of the
HMA, because the curve becomes flatter when the aggregate
modulus is higher than the value of 50 GPa, as shown in
Fig. 9a. When the aggregate modulus increased from 10 to
120 GPa, the mixture modulus had about 80% improvement.
When the aggregate modulus increased from 20 to 80 GPa
(the normal varying range of aggregate modulus), the mix-
ture modulus had a 35% improvement. Figure 9b shows the
E* of the HMA versus the E* of sand mastic for two differ-
ent aggregate modulus (one stiff and one soft). The E* of HMA
is higher for a stiffer aggregate modulus across a range of
sand mastic modulus.
Compare dynamic modulus prediction using
the finite element method and the discrete
element method
In this paper, one of the objectives is to show the utiliza-
tion of the finite element method (FEM) to predict the E* of
HMA. To verify the FE prediction, E* measurements of the
HMA were compared to prediction values. In addition, a
recent micromechanics-based discrete element model
(DEM) studied by Buttlar and You (2001), You and Butt-
lar (2004, 2005, 2006) was also used to compare the FEM
prediction at different temperatures and loading frequen-
cies. Similar to the FE models, the micromechanics-based
DEM approach was based upon the study of the micro-
structure of the HMA, where the high resolution optical
images were obtained to study the microstructure of asphalt
mixture and to prepare geometry input for the clustered
DEM model. The DEM models include aggregateaggregate
interaction, aggregate volume concentration, and aggregate
modulus as an input in the simulation, which are important
factors in governing the mixture modulus.
For this type of HMA, the E* predictions from FEM and
DEM are shown in Fig. 10. The experimental data from
three test temperatures and four loading frequencies are
shown in the figure to compare with the prediction. It ap-
pears that the DEM over-predicts the E*. This difference
may be because the resolution of the two models is differ-
ent. A cluster of circular elements were used in the DEM
while triangular elements correctly represented the geometry
of the microstructure. Further comparison is ongoing through
more accurate image processing work. However, the FEM
provides very good prediction compared with the measure-
ments across a range of test temperatures and loading fre-
Table 2. Paired t test and confidence interval (CI) for the
finite element model (FEM) predictions (C1) and the lab
measurements (C2).
N Mean
Standard
deviation SE mean
C1 12 20.26 6.35 1.83
C2 12 19.98 6.04 1.74
Difference 12 0.28 2.51 0.73
Note: Paired t for C1 (FEM predictions) C2 (lab measure-
ments); 95% CI for mean difference: (1.32, 1.87); t test of mean
difference = 0 (versus not = 0); t-value = 0.38, p-value = 0.709.
N, sample size; SE, standard error.
Fig. 9. Aggregate modulus effect on dynamic complex modulus
(E*) of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) using finite element model (FEM)
prediction: (a) E* of HMA increases with the increasing of the ag-
gregate stiffness (mastic E* is 4.4 GPa in this case for the model)
and (b) aggregate effects for two different aggregates (one stiff and
one extremely stiff) across of range of mastic E*.
You and Dai 1525
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2007 NRC Canada
quencies. For the predictions from the FE models, the E*
of HMA varies with that of the sand mastic. Figure 10 shows
that the prediction line (solid line) is very close to the
measurement points of the E* of HMA. There are many
data points in the solid line, which include different mastic
E* measurements (as inputs). It should be noted that the
FE model can also be used to predict the mixture moduli
when the mastic moduli are very low and high (at high
and low temperatures, respectively), even though the
laboratory data are not measured. As mentioned previously,
the FE prediction of HMA modulus has the viscoelastic
properties through elastic simulation. The reason is that
the viscoelastic modulus of sand mastic at the preselected
temperatures and loading frequencies was measured and
used as input in the FE models.
Even though the examples shown in this paper are mainly
at low temperature, the model can be used to predict the
mixture properties at intermediate and higher temperatures
when the reliable laboratory data are available and the con-
stitutive model of the mastic phase is correct. Currently, the
researchers are modelling the asphalt mixture from 3-D
microstructure at intermediate and higher temperatures. The
preliminary results indicated that the aggregate interlock
significantly contributes to the mixture modulus at inter-
mediate and higher temperatures.
Summary and conclusions
In this paper, finite element models were used to simulate
the microstructure of the aggregate skeleton of the HMA.
The microstructure of HMA was generated from the 2-D im-
age of a cross section of mixture specimen. In the HMA mi-
crostructure, aggregates and sand mastic were divided into
different subdomains. Finite element mesh was generated
within each selected aggregate or sand mastic subdomain.
Corresponding principles were applied by incorporating
mastic complex modulus and elastic aggregate stiffness to
predict the mixture complex modulus. Uniaxial compressive
simulation was conducted to monitor the viscoelastic stress
strain behavior of mixture specimen. The E* of the HMA
was calculated by using the computation results. By compar-
ing the numerical simulation and laboratory measurements,
it appears that this FE model provides satisfactory predic-
tions of the moduli of the HMA for the different loading fre-
quencies and test temperatures. In general, the comparison
between the FE prediction and laboratory measurement indi-
cates that the FE predictions of complex moduli of mixture
are accurate under the different loading frequencies and test
temperatures. The E* of HMA was also predicted through
the recently developed DEM. It was found that the DEM
gives similar predictions to those of the FE models.
The application of this model can be very useful for prac-
titioners. For example, engineers can use the model to pre-
dict the asphalt mixture properties, such as complex
modulus, by changing the controllable factors, like the
gradation of the aggregates and compaction efforts to design
an asphalt mixture with desired properties. Ultimately, engi-
neers will be able to predict asphalt pavement performance
and distress in a virtual lab.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Dr. William Buttlars assistance
in the laboratory tests at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
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