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 BIOLOGY
MADE EASY

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APPLICABLE FROM 2023 TO 2028

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A Beginner's Guide to get A* in IGCSE & O
Levels Biology

These O Level and IGCSE Biology notes have been crafted with extreme
love and care to make learning effortless. With top-class 3D diagrams
and ultra-simple English, every concept becomes crystal clear. Designed
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specifically for Gen-Z, this book keeps things to the point—no
unnecessary fluff, just pure, easy-to-grasp knowledge!

Ghulam Rasool
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 DEDICATION

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YOU ALONE WE WORSHIP AND YOU ALONE WE ASK FOR HELP

I dedicate these notes to Allah Almighty, who blessed me the opportunity,

knowledge, and perseverance to bring this project to life. Without His

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guidance, none of this would have been possible.
Secondly, I extend my gratitude to myself—for not giving up. The journey of
writing these notes was filled with challenges, yet determination kept me
moving forward.
A special acknowledgment to Sir Shehroz Khan, my mentor, teacher, and
colleague, whose guidance and unwavering support played a crucial role in
shaping these notes. As the Founder and CEO of HSA Academy, an
esteemed O/A Levels institute, he provided me with the platform and
encouragement to launch these notes and contribute to students’ academic
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success.
Why These Notes?
I have always been a visual learner, just like every human being. The human
brain processes images far more efficiently than text, making complex
concepts easier to grasp. However, with the digital revolution—the rise of the
internet and smartphones—attention spans have significantly reduced,
especially among Gen-Z learners. While the market offers excellent and
concise biology notes, many of them lack engaging visuals, vibrant colors,
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and captivating imagery, making them less effective for modern students.
Being a Gen-Z student myself, I understand the need for visually appealing
and to-the-point content. That’s why I have meticulously crafted these notes
using high-quality 3D diagrams and illustrations to simplify even the most
challenging biological concepts. My goal has been to make learning
straightforward, efficient, and enjoyable.
Despite my best efforts, errors and omissions are inevitable, and I humbly
welcome any constructive feedback to improve these notes further.
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Notes by Ghulam Rasool Content Overview 01

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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Figure 1.1 An Animal Cell

CELL THEORY
Cell is the structural and functional unit
of life.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
TPOrganisms can have one or more cells.

MAIN CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS

CELLS
Prokaryote Eukaryote
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Figure 1.2 A Bacterial Cell

Means Means
Before True

Means
Nucleus
from word karyon

Example
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Bacterial Cell is a Prokaryotic Cell

whereas Plant, Animal & Fungus cells are
Eukaryotic cells.

Basically all life forms can be divided into

two types i.e : with nucleus & without
nucleus

Figure 1.3 A Plant Cell

02 Cells / Organization of the Organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 1.1. Cell Structures and Function

Organelle Description Function

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a thick jelly-like viscous material contains all the cells organelles &
Animal, Plant and Bacterial Cell

Cytoplasm with organelles in it provides site for chemical reactions

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a partially permeable layer controls and regulates the in & out
Cell Membrane enclosing the cytoplasm movement of substances in the cell

small protien factories synthesised

Ribosomes by nucleolus in the nucleus protien synthesis

acts as the storage for water, food and

a fluid filled single membrane
Vacuole waste. Plants have a large vacule to
bound organelle
build turgor pressure
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organelle, containing the genetic
acts as the brain of cell. Controls cell
Nucleus code (DNA) inside in the form of
Plant & Animal

development & division.

thread-like material called
Chromatin

a double membrane bound acts as the power house of the cell. It

Mitochondria organelle having it’s own DNA and does aerobic respiration and generates
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Ribosomes. energy in the form of ATP

Plant

Chloroplast contains chlorophyll converts solar to chemical energy

Plant & Bacteria

a tough non-living layer that

protects the cell. In plants its made
up of cellulose & lignin while in provides support and protection
Cell Wall
bacterias, its made from (fully permeable)
peptidoglycan.
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acts as the brain of cell and controls

Circular DNA a single circular chromosome
functions

addition part of DNA lying freely

Plasmids contains drug resistant genes
in the cytoplasm

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Cells / Organization of the Organisms 03

 Plant Cell Animal Cell

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Cell Membrane

Cytoplasm Cilia

Mitochondria

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Cell Wall
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Chloroplast
Golgi Apparatus

Nucleolus

Chromatin (DNA)

Nuclear Envelope
Plasmodesmata
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Plant cell is large and rectangular shape. Animal cell is small and irregular shape.

Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.

Large central vacuole is present. Many small vacuoles are present.

Mitochondria are present in fewer numbers Mitochondria lie in huge numbers.

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Plastids are present. Plastids are absent.

Centrosomes are absent. Centrosomes are present.

Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent

Cilia
Capsule/Slime

Bacterial Cell Cell Wall

Cell Membrane
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Genetic Material (DNA)

Bacteria are microscopic living organisms
Plasmid
that have only one cell. They don’t have any
double membrane bound organelle i.e: Vacule
Nucleus, Mitochondria or Chloroplast.
Apitop
Their DNA is circular and is present in the
cytoplasm without any envelope. They have Flagella
additional DNA called as plasmid in the
cytoplasm that has drug resistant genes.
Their cell wall unlike plants is made up of
peptidoglycan.
Figure 1.6 A Bacterial Cell

04 Cells / Organization of the Organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 1.2. Size Of Specimens
Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of
something. This enlargement is quantified by a size ratio called optical magnification.
Image size
Magnification =
actual size of the specimen

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Unit Conversion
Lets solve an example to understand an

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easy method for unit conversion.

EXAMPLE
Q 1: Convert 50 nm to cm
Use a 3 Step method to solve this
question.
Solve not-required prefix
Add required prefix
Solve required prefix
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Now, if you see the question.
In 50 nm, nano is the prefix and metre is
tha base unit. So, just place the value of
nano.
=50 nm
-9 -9
=50 x 10 m (Since nano = 10 )
Now add centi as a prefix
-9
=50 x 10 c m ........ (1) (See Explanation)
C
-9 MOST COMMON UNITS
=50 x 10 cm
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C Although this method is applicable to all prefixes

but these are the most used prefixes in biology.
Now put the value of centi and solve.
-9 -2
=50 x 10 cm (since centi = 10 ) EXPLANATION
-2
10
-9 -2 One rule of math is, anything that is
=50 x 10 x 10 cm
-9+(-2) added in an equation must be
=50 x 10 cm
-9-2 substracted so that there is no net
=50 x 10 cm
-11 effect on the equation.
=50 x 10 cm
When we introduced ‘centi’ to the
equation, just writting ‘centi’ would
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PRACTICE YOURSELF make the equation unjustifiable.

So, we introduced ‘centi’ to the
Convert 0.75 meters to centimeters.
equation by multiplying and dividing the
Convert 1.2 liters to milliliters.
equation with ‘centi’.
Convert 300 milligrams to micrograms.
c anything
Convert 5.6 centimeters to millimeters. =1 because =1
C anything
Convert 2500 micrometers to
and 1 x anything = anything
millimeters.
so, in equation 1:
Convert 0.45 liters to milliliters. -9 -9 -9
=50 x 10 c m = 50 x 10 (1) m = 50 x 10 m
Convert 1200 micrometers to
c
nanometers.
which means no change in equation.
Convert 0.03 grams to milligrams.
Convert 2.5 centimeters to millimeters.
Notes by Ghulam Rasool Cells / Organization of the Organisms 05
 Root Hair
Root HairCell
Cell
Water is absorbed from soil into root

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hair cells
Have high surface area for maximum
absorption and osmosis
High concentration of dissolved ions

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in root hair cells promotes osmosis

Figure 1.7 A Root hair & root hair Cell

sXylem Vessels
Found in angiosperms/flowering plants
Made of vessel elements
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Continuous tubes/No end walls
Thick spiral patterned lignin cell walls
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8 (a) stem (b) cross-section of stem (c) xylem vessel Cilia

Ciliated Cells Nucleus

Structure:
They line all the air passages down to
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the lungs.
They have tiny hairs called cilia.
Function:
Hairs sweep mucus with trapped dust
and bacteria back up the throat to be
swallowed.
Smoking causes hairs to die and the
Figure 1.9 A ciliated cell
Nerve Cell
mucus builds up leading to the well-
known smoker’s cough.
Neuron
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Nucleus Cell body

Nodes Contains nucleus and organelles
Dendrites Dendrites
Branch-like extensions of cytoplasm
and cell membrane
Receive messages from neighboring
cells
Mylin Sheath
Axon
Long extension that carries electrical
Axon Cell Body
signals away from the cell body
Passes messages to other cells
Figure 1.10 A neuron cell

06 Cells / Organization of the Organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Muscle Cell
Muscle Cell Nucleus
Structure: Cell Body
Muscle cells have specialized structures that can
contract.
Muscle tissue contains the specialized proteins actin,
tropomyosin and myosin

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These proteins slide past one another during movement.
Function:
Allows for movement of limbs and contraction.
Examples:

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Heart — Cardiac Muscle
Body Movement — Skeletal Muscle
Digestive Tract, Veins/Arteries, Bladder — Smooth
Muscle Figure 1.11 (a) A neuron cell (b) Muscle tissue

Palisade Mesophyl Cell

Structure:
Found in the top layers of a leaf (under upper
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Tall and has a large surface area to catch as much
sunlight as possible
Packed with chloroplasts to absorb maximum sunlight

Function:
To carry out photosynthesis
Figure 1.12 A palisade tissue To help convert solar to chemical energy
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A Red Blood Cell No Nucleus so more Blood Cells Flowing in a vein

haemoglobin can fit in

WBCs and Platlets

Blood with large also present
amount of hemoglobin

Figure 1.13 Red Blood Cell Figure 1.14 A vein cross-section

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Nucleus Egg Cell Sperm Cell

Mitochondria Axial Filament
Centriole
Nucleus
Acrosome
T a il

Body
Figure 1.16 An egg cell Figure 1.15 A sperm cell
H ead

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Cells / Organization of the Organisms 07

 How cells combine to improve their efficiency?
One cell working on its own would achieve very little in an individual plant or animal, so we
usually find many similar cells lying side-by-side and working together, performing the same
function.

HIGHER LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

TISSUE

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Many similar cells working together and performing the same function are called a tissue.
Examples of Tissues
Xylem tissue in the vascular bundles of a plant.

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Muscular tissue in the intestine wall of an animal.

ORGAN
Several tissues working together to produce a particular function forming a single identity,
called as an ORGAN
Examples of Organs
The leaf of a plant is an organ for the manufacturing of carbohydrates during photosynthesis
The eye of an animal is the organ of sight.

ORGAN SYSTEM
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A collection of different organs working together to perform a complementary function is
called an ORGAN SYSTEM
Example of working of an Organ System
The purpose of mouth is to crush the solid food and start carb digestion with the help of
enzyme in saliva to prepare the food for other organs. i.e: Stomach & intestine etc

Cells > Tissues > Organs > Organ System > Organism
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COMMON ORGANELLES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm
Cell Membrane is a jelly-like substance inside the cell that holds and supports the organelles. It
serves as the site for many important chemical reactions necessary for the cell's survival.
Additionally, it helps in transporting materials within the cell and maintaining the cell's shape.

Nucleus
This contains a number of chromosomes made up of proteins and DNA. Chromosomes possess
genes responsible for programming the ribosomes to manufacture particular proteins. When a
cell divides, it does so by a process called mitosis, during which each chromosome forms an
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exact replica of itself. The two cells formed are identical to each other and to the original cell.
The cytoplasm and the nucleus make up the protoplasm.

Mitochondria
Produce energy for the cell by respiration, so are called the powerhouse of the cell.

Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is found in all cells and separates the
interior of the cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
that is semipermeable. The cell membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and
exiting the cell.

08 Cells / Organization of the Organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Plant Cells Have the Following Additional Structures:
Large Central Vacuole: A space containing cell sap, a solution made up mostly of sugars. The
vacuole is sometimes called the ‘sap vacuole’. It is separated from the cytoplasm by the
vacuolar membrane called tonoplast.
Cell Wall: A ‘box’ made of cellulose encloses the cell. If the cell is involved in the process of
photosynthesis, it also contains:
Chloroplasts: Small bodies lying in the cytoplasm. They are green in color because they
contain the pigment chlorophyll, which is responsible for photosynthesis.

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SPECIALIZED CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS
In unicellular organisms, one cell must be able to carry out all the functions of a living

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organism. In multicellular organisms, cells are usually modified to carry out one main function.
The appearance of the cell may vary depending on what that main function is. In multicellular
organisms there is a relationship between the structure of a cell and its function.

Observing Plant Cells (e.g:

Onion Cell)
Method:
Prepare the Onion Sample:
Peel a thin layer of the onion (the
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epidermis) using tweezers.
Place the thin layer flat on a microscope
slide.
Add Stain:
Using a dropper, add one or two drops of
iodine solution onto the onion layer. This
stains the cells, making them easier to Figure 1.16 A labelled Onion slide
see.
Cover the Sample:
Gently place a cover slip over the onion Observing an Animal Cell
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layer to avoid air bubbles.

Observe Under Microscope:
(e.g., Human Cheek Cell)
Start with the lowest magnification. Method:
Focus the microscope by adjusting the Collect the Cheek Cell Sample:
focus knobs. Gently rub the inside of your cheek with a
Gradually increase the magnification to clean cotton swab to collect cells.
observe the cell wall, nucleus, and Smear the cells onto a microscope slide.
cytoplasm. Add Stain:
Add one or two drops of methylene blue
solution onto the cells using a dropper.
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This stains the cells, making the nucleus

and other parts visible.
Cover the Sample:
Place a cover slip over the sample
carefully to avoid air bubbles.
Observe Under Microscope:
Start with the lowest magnification and
use the focus knobs to bring the image
into clear view.
Increase the magnification to observe the
cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
Figure 1.16 A labelled Human Cheek Cell

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Cells / Organization of the Organisms 09

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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Figure 2.1 Different Species of cat family
CLASSIFICATION
Just as a library organizes books by categories, scientists classify living organisms into groups
such as kingdoms, phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS
1. Movement: The process by which an organism or a part of it changes its position or location.
2. Respiration: The cellular chemical reactions that breaks down nutrient molecules to release
energy for metabolic activities.
3. Sensitivity: The capability to detect and react to changes in both the internal and external
environment.
4. Growth: The permanent increase in an organism’s size and mass due to the enlargement and
multiplication of cells.
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5. Reproduction: The biological process that produces new individuals of the same species.
6. Excretion: The elimination of metabolic waste products and substances that are in excess of what
the body needs.
7. Nutrition: The intake of materials necessary for energy, growth, and development.

The Five Kingdom Classification System

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10 Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 Monera Protists Fungi Plants Animals

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Most species are
Unicellular, though Most species are
unicellular, though All species are
some form clusters multicellular,
some are multicellular
or chains of with a few being
multicellular with and ingest food
identical cells. unicellular. The
specialized cell from the
Certain species are majority are
types. Certain environment
autotrophic, saprophytes, All species
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producing food via
species produce
secreting are
for internal
food via digestion.
photosynthesis. enzymes multicellular
photosynthesis, Exceptions
Others are parasitic, through hyphae and produce
while others ingest include
relying on hosts, or to digest and their own
and digest food parasites like
saprophytic, absorb organic food through
from their tapeworms,
secreting enzymes material, leading photo-
environment. A few which absorb
to digest and absorb to decay and synthesis.
species utilize partially
organic material, decomposition.
phagocytosis to digested food
leading to decay Some species
obtain food from from their host.
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and decomposition. are parasitic.

their surroundings.

The hierarchy of classification organizes living

organisms into groups based on shared
characteristics and evolutionary relationships.
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It starts with the Domain, the broadest

category, followed by Kingdom, Phylum, Class,
Order, Family, Genus, and Species, the most
specific level. This system helps categorize and
study the diversity of life, with each level
representing a finer distinction in the
relatedness of organisms.

Specie:
A group of organisms that can interbreed freely
in nature and produce fertile offspring. Figure 2.2 Taxanomic Hierarcchy

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms 11

 Cell Number Cell Wall Nucleus Chlorophyll Make Food

Unicellular very
Bacteria simple parts
Present Absent Absent Absent

Unicellular Very
Present (Some with
Protists Complex
Cellulose)
Present Present in some Absent
Parts

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Fungi Multi Cellular Present (Chitin) Present Absent Absent

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Present with Cellulose
Plants Multi Cellular
and Lignin
Present Present Present

Animals Multi Cellular Absent Present Absent Absent

BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
The characteristics used to divide all organisms into one of the five groups included:
How many cells made up their bodies, if their cells were very simple or had complex parts
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If they can move on their own or not.
If they could make their own food, or had to eat other creatures to survive.
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MOSSES FERNS
Mosses quickly lose water in dry air as a A waxy layer waterproofs the plant’s
result, mosses live in damp places surfaces, reducing water loss in a dry
Roots are absent so water is soaked up by atmosphere.
capillary movement over the leaves. Roots draw water from the soil.
Stalks grow from moss plants, each carrying Spore capsules containing spores grow in
a spore capsule filled with spores patches on the undersides of leaves.
Each spore is able to develop into a new Each spore is able to grow into a new fern
plant plant.

12 Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 Conifers
Seeds are contained in cones.
Covered with leaves all year round (evergreen).
Roots draw water from the soil.
Waxy layer waterproofs plant surfaces.

Flowering Plants

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Seeds are contained in fruits.
Leaves of trees shrubs fall once a year (deciduous).
Roots draw water from the soil.
Waxy layer waterproofs plant surfaces.

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Spore

Mosses Ferns

Producing
Kingdom Plantea
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Seeds
Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Conifers Flowering
Plants

Producing

Figure 2.3 Classification of Seed producing plants Figure 2.4 Venn Diagram of Kingdom Plantea
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Characteristics Monocotyledonous Plants Dicotyledonous Plants

Parallel Vein in thier long Net-Vein Spreading from main of

Leaf Shape and Vein Narrow vein broad leaves

Vascular bundles are arrange in a

Arrangement of Vascular bundles are scattered ring near the edge of the stem has
around in the Stem. Cambium is cambium between Phloem and
vascular Bundles absent Xylem
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Hypogeal germination- cotyledons Epigeal germination- cotyledons

Type of Seed remain underground during pull upwords above ground level as
germination germination during germination

Structure of seed Seeds with two cotyledons Seeds with two cotyledons

Flowers are usually wind- Flowers are usually insect-

Type of Pollination pollinated pollinated

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms 13

 Insects Arachnids Crustaceans Myriapods

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e.g., fly, wasp e.g., spider, mite e.g., crab, woodlouse e.g., centipede, millipede
Three pairs of legs Four pairs of legs Five or more pairs of usually one pair per
limbs segment
One pair of antennae No antennae Two pairs of antennae One pair of antennae
Body divided into head, Body divided into Body divided into Body not obviously
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thorax, and abdomen cephalothorax and cephalothorax and divided into thorax and
abdomen abdomen abdomen
Compound eyes Several pairs of simple One pair of compound Simple eyes
eyes eyes
Usually have two pairs Pair of pedipalps Exoskeleton often forms
of wings adapted for biting and a hard covering over
poisoning prey most of the body
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Vertebrates
Fish Amphibia Reptiles Birds Mammals
Class

Example trout, rohu & shark Frog & toad Lizard, snake Sparrow, pigeon Mouse, Lion

Body Covering scales smooth skin dry skin with scales feathers with scales fur or hair
or shields on leg
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Movement fins used for balance four legs used to four legs (a part two wings and two four limbs
walk; some swim from snakes) legs
back to front like fish
Reproduction produce jelly- produce eggs with a produce eggs with a
produce jelly-
covered eggs in water covered eggs in water rubbery shell; some hard shell; lay on
give live birth
produce live young
nests
Sense organs eyes; lateral line Eyes; Ear Eyes; Ear Eyes; Ear eyes; ears with a
system pinna (external flap)
Other details cold-blooded; gills cold-blooded; gills cold-blooded; lungs warm-blooded; warm-blooded;
for breathing for breathing when for breathing lungs for breathing lungs for breathing,
young then develop mammary glands to
lungs produce milk; 4
types of teeths

14 Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
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BODY PARTS OF BIRD BODY PARTS OF FISH
Dorsal Fin
Eye

Wings
Wing Feathers
Nostrill Caudal Fin

Mouth
Tail Feathers
Nostril
Beak Legs
Neck
TP Hind Toe
Pelvic Fin (Paired) Gill Cover Anal Fin
Abdomen Clawed Toes

BODY PARTS OF MAMMAL FROG LIZARD

Ear
Mouth
Belly Head Head
Eye Eye
Tail Thigh
Tail
Eye
Body
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Ankle
Nose
Nostril
Hand Legs Fingers Fore Arm
Whisper Mouth
Dewlap Body
Feet
Figure 2.5 Labelled Diagrams of some Vertebrates
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BACTERIA

Bacteria possess a simple cell structure, as shown in

the figure 2.6. Measuring a few micrometres in
length, bacteria are visible only under light or
electron microscopes. Their cells are enclosed by
cell walls and lack a nucleus, though some species
have slime capsules and additional DNA loops,
called plasmids, in their cytoplasm. Unlike animal
and plant cells, bacteria lack chloroplasts and
mitochondria. Some bacteria use flagella (singular:
flagellum) for movement in fluids.
Figure 2.6 Bacterial Cell

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms 15

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SPHERES RODS
(COCCI) (BACILLI) SPIRALS

FUNGI
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Fungi are visible under a light microscope and many
can be seen with the naked eye. While most are
multicellular, yeasts are single-celled. Fungal cells
have a nucleus and a cell wall made of chitin, unlike
plants, which have cellulose-based walls. Lacking
chlorophyll, fungi cannot photosynthesize. The main
body, called the mycelium, consists of a network of
hyphae that release enzymes to digest food
externally, which is then absorbed. Fungi reproduce
by producing spores carried by the wind. Most fungi
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are saprotrophs, feeding on decaying matter, while

some are parasitic.
Figure 2.7 Structure of Fungus & Fungal Cell

VIIRUS
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Viruses are not cells but particles composed of

genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a
protein coat. This genetic material includes a few
genes that code for the viral proteins. Viruses are
parasitic, requiring a host cell to reproduce by taking
over the host's cellular machinery to create new
viruses. Unlike organisms in the five kingdoms, which
all have cells, viruses lack cells and are classified (a) (b)
separately based on their genetic material and
protein coat. Figure 2.8 (a) Herpes virus
(b) Bacteriophage (Bacteria eating virus)

16 Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 CHARACTERISTICS VIRUS BACTERIA

Living/Non-Living Between living and non-living things True living organism

Cellular Machinery Lack cellular machinery Contains cellular machinery

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Reproduction Requires living host cell to reproduce Bacterium can reproduce itself

Benefits for humans Limited number of benefits Large number of benefits

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TP
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MAKE A LEAF KEY

Now try making a key of your own

Take six different leaves and label them A to F.

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Put the six leaves out in front of you.

Think of a question that will divide them into two groups.
Write down the question.
Now think up questions to divide each group into two.
Write these down.
Carry on until you come to the last pair of leaves.
Write out your key as a branching key or as a numbered key.

Some examples of Binomial Nomenclature:

Homo sapien (Human), Rosa indica (Rose Plant), Rana Tigrina (Frog)

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Classification / Characteristics and classification of living organisms 17

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of particles
from an area of higher concentration to
one of lower concentration due to random
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motion, along the concentration gradient

SIGNIFICANCE

Cell Membrane
Substances move in and out of cells by
diffusion.
Biological Importance
Vital for gas and solute exchange in
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organisms. Figure 3.1 Small Molecules Diffusing out from Blood

Example
(a) Gas Exchange in Lungs: Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the bloodstream, while carbon
dioxide diffuses from the bloodstream into the lungs.
(b) Gas Exchange in Leaves: Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse in and out of a leaf for
respiration and photosynthesis.
(c) Nutrient Absorption: In the Ileum Soluble food molecules diffuse from the ileum into the
villi for absorption into the bloodstream.
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

Membrane Thickness: Thinner cell membranes increase the rate of diffusion.
Concentration Gradient: A higher concentration difference across the membrane speeds up
diffusion.
Surface Area: A larger surface area-to-volume ratio enhances diffusion. Cells may have folds or
microvilli to increase absorbing surfaces, such as in the intestines. The biconcave shape of red
blood cells also increases surface area for oxygen absorption.
Molecule Size: Smaller molecules and ions diffuse faster than larger ones.
Temperature: Higher temperatures boost kinetic energy, increasing molecular movement and
diffusion rate.

18 Movement into and out of cell / Movement into and out of cell +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 EXAMPLE
1. Drop different colors into conical flasks
containing water.

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2. Put cover on them and allow it to stand
for an hour.
3. Carefully observe and record the changes
in the color of the water after 1 hour.

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4. Initially, they will be seen separate but
later on there will be a homogenous
mixture due to diffusion.
Figure 3.1 Small Molecules Diffusing out from Blood

SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE

Allows the passage of water, small

molecules, and ions but prevents the
passage of large molecules such as starch
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EXAMPLE
Examples include the cell membrane, egg
membrane, and dialysis tubing.

Figure 3.1 Small Molecules Diffusing out from Blood

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3.2
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules
from a region of higher water potential (dilute
solution) to a region of lower water potential
(concentrated solution), through a partially
permeable membrane.
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Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis

through the cell membrane.
Water diffuses through partially permeable
membranes by osmosis.
Water acts as a solvent in organisms in solutions
for digestion, excretion, and transport.
The Plants are supported by the pressure of
water inside the cells pressing outwards on the Figure 3.2 Osmosis
cell wall.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Movement into and out of cell / Movement into and out of cell 19
 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
1. Hypotonic solution (dilute solution): e.g., 0.1% sucrose solution (weak solution).
2. Hypertonic solution (concentrated solution): e.g., 5% sucrose solution (strong solution).
3. Isotonic solution: Solution with the same concentration

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Osmosis makes plant cells swell up if they’re surrounded by weak solutions, making them turgid.
This is useful for supporting green plant tissue and opening stomatal guard cells. Animal cells,

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lacking a cell wall, can easily burst if placed in pure water due to excessive water intake by osmosis

TP
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20 Movement into and out of cell / Movement into and out of cell +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
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TP
Water enters cell, cell swells and becomes
[Link] wall preventing bursting
NOTE: Arrow indicates movement of water
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Active transport is the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower
SIGNIFICANCE
concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e., against a concentration gradient), using
energy from respiration.
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Example:
(a) Absorption of soluble products of digestion by the villi of the small intestine of a mammal.
(b) Re-absorption of amino acids, glucose, mineral salts, and water back into the network of
capillaries surrounding coiled parts of the kidney tubules.
(c) Uptake of minerals from the soil water by roots of plants.

Sometimes cells need to move molecules into themselves faster than diffusion will allow, so
energy is used to speed up the absorption process by actively transporting the molecules against
a concentration gradient.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Movement into and out of cell / Movement into and out of cell 21
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TP
Example
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22 Movement into and out of cell / Movement into and out of cell +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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Figure 4.1 3D simulation of a protein

4.1 BIOLOICAL MOLECULES

Food Group Chemical Sources Uses Deficiency

Elements System
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Proteins C, H, O, N Eggs and meat Muscle growth and Kwashiorkor
energy supply
Fats C, H, O Butter and milk Energy store and Weakness
heat insulation
Carbohydrates C, H, O Potato, wheat, and Energy source Weakness
rice

EXAMPLE OF DIETRY DISEASE:

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A : SCURVY B : RICKETS C : KWASHIORKAR D : OBESITY

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BALANCE DIET
A balanced diet is essential as it encompasses all the vital nutrients required by the body. This
includes an adequate supply of carbohydrates and fats to fulfill energy requirements, proteins
rich in essential amino acids crucial for growth and recovery, as well as a sufficient intake of
vitamins, minerals, water, and fiber to promote overall well-being.

Moreover, a balanced diet necessitates the consumption of all essential food groups in
appropriate amounts and proportions to support optimal health.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Biological Molecules / Biological Molecules 23

 BALANCE DIET (Continued..)
2. A balanced diet for any person will depend on age, sex, body size, lifestyle, and occupation.
The body needs sufficient energy to maintain the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and to sustain
additional activities of the individual. The basal metabolic rate is the energy needed for vital

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body functions (such as heartbeat, circulation, brain function, and essential chemical reactions in
the liver and other organs) to keep alive when the body is completely at rest. Growing children
and pregnant mothers have higher basal metabolism rates than older adults. The basal metabolic

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rate of a manual worker is high compared to an office worker with a desk-bound job.

3. Malnutrition can result from a diet lacking essential nutrients, leading to various deficiency
diseases. In regions where rice and flour are the main dietary staples, protein deficiency
disorders like kwashiorkor are prevalent, characterized by symptoms such as a swollen belly,
reduced disease resistance, and poor mental development.

4. Overeating can lead to the storage of excess food as fat, resulting in overweight and health
issues, particularly in old age. Dietary measures are often necessary to prevent diseases caused
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by the buildup of fats, such as cholesterol, in the arteries leading to the heart. Coronary heart
disease, for example, can be caused by excessive consumption of saturated fats found in yolks,
butter, cream, and fatty meat, coupled with a lack of exercise.
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CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are compounds made of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, including sugars and
starches. Glucose, a key sugar from
photosynthesis, is essential for cellular respiration
and circulates in the bloodstream. Its structure
includes a six-carbon ring. Sucrose, a disaccharide,
is made of two sugar units. Complex carbohydrates
form when multiple sugar molecules link via
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glycosidic bonds. Plants store glucose as starch

for energy, while enzymes help form glucose
chains. Glycogen, or animal starch, is another
complex carbohydrate

Glucose acts as an energy store for animals, stored in the liver and muscles. Unlike sugars, starch
and glycogen are insoluble and do not taste sweet. Cellulose, a structural carbohydrate, consists
of multiple glucose units arranged in long, unbranched chains that link together to form fibers,
imparting strength and rigidity to plant cell walls.

24 Biological Molecules / Biological Molecules +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Proteins are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but they also contain
nitrogen (N) and many have sulfur (S). Proteins are long-chain molecules made up of smaller
molecules called amino acids. After formation, they are either folded into different shapes or
become arranged into long fibers.

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Figure 4.2 Structure of an Amino Acid
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Figure 4.3 Condensation of Amino Acids Figure 4.4 A polypeptide

There are about 20 different types of amino acids. Molecules of amino acids are made into chains
as you can see in the diagram. It is the sequence of the different amino acids in the chain which
determines the type of protein that is formed. Each individual amino acid joins the chain by
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means of a chemical bond called a peptide bond.

FATS & OILS

Fats and oils are compounds comprising carbon,
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hydrogen, and oxygen. A fat molecule typically

comprises a glycerol molecule linked to three fatty
acids. The diverse types of fatty acids present in
fats contribute distinct characteristics to these
compounds. In the body, fats function as energy
reserves and offer thermal insulation.

TYPES
Fatty acids can be characterized into three main
types. Figure 4.4 Structure of a Triglyceride

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Biological Molecules / Biological Molecules 25

 TYPES

1. Saturated fats: No double bonds, solid at

room temperature.
2. Unsaturated fats: One or more double

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bonds, liquid at room temperature
(monounsaturated & polyunsaturated).
3. Trans fats: Artificially created, linked to

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health risks.

DNA & RNA

Nucleic acids are biomolecules essential for
storing and transmitting genetic information.
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There are two main types: deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
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BASES IN DNA & RNA

Figure 4.5 Hydrogen Bonding between DNA strands

Figure
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Figure 4.6 Types of RNA

NUCLEOTIDE
1. Phosphate group: A phosphate molecule attached to the
sugar, which links nucleotides together in a chain.
2. Sugar: A five-carbon sugar, either deoxyribose in DNA or
ribose in RNA, which forms the backbone of the nucleotide.
3. Nitrogenous base: A nitrogen-containing base (adenine,
thymine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil) that carries the
genetic information.
Figure 4.7 Structure of a Nucleotide

26 Biological Molecules / Biological Molecules +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Food Test Method Observation Conclusion
Iodine Test (for Add a few drops of iodine Food Turn Blue black Starch present
starch) solution to the food sample. Food Turn Pale Brown No Starch

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Benedict’s Test (for Add Benedict’s solution to the
food sample and heat in a water Red ppt Reducing sugars present
Small Quantity/traces of
reducing sugars) bath. yellow brown ppt reducing sugar present

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No color change No reducing sugars

Biuret Test (for Add sodium hydroxide and Purple color observed Protein present
protein) copper sulfate to the food sample.

No color change No protein

Grease Spot Test Rub the food on filter paper. hold Grease patch observed Fat present
(for fats) up paper to the light

Add equal volume of dilute

TP solution of sodium hydroxide to
Emulsion Test (for the food extract. Shake well. Purple solution Proteins present
fats) Add 1-2 drops of dilute copper Blue solution No protein
sulphate solution.
Shake well.

Testing for Vitamin C

Vitamin C can be found in various juices like freshly-squeezed lemon juice. To create a vitamin C
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solution, one can use Vitamin C tablets. DCPIP, a blue liquid, changes color when it interacts with
vitamin C.
Place a known volume of DCPIP solution in a test tube.
Slowly add the juice drop by drop using a pipette or dropper until the blue color vanishes.
This step determines the presence of Vitamin C. If the DCPIP color disappears, for instance,
with orange juice, it indicates the presence of Vitamin C.
Take a syringe or dropper filled with a vitamin C solution or a Vitamin C-positive juice and add it
to another test tube containing starch indicator and iodine solution. If the blue color remains, the
test result is negative.
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FOOD PRESERVATION
Food preservation methods aim to prevent spoilage and extend shelf life. Sterilization and
irradiation kill harmful bacteria, while pasteurization reduces microorganisms. Refrigeration
and freezing slow or stop bacterial growth, and drying removes moisture essential for bacteria.
Additional methods include using electric currents and chemical preservatives to prevent
spoilage, pickling with acid to inhibit bacteria, jam-making with sugar to preserve, and smoking
to extend freshness. These techniques ensure food safety and longevity.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Biological Molecules / Biological Molecules 27

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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Figure 5.1 3D simulation of an Enzyme

ENZYMES
Enzymes are proteins which function as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of chemical
reactions without being altered themselves.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
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In the human digestive system, various enzymes play essential roles in breaking down food into
absorbable components. Amylase is responsible for breaking down starch into glucose, aiding in
the digestion of carbohydrates. Lipase breaks down fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol,
while protease and pepsin break down proteins into amino acids, essential for nutrient
absorption. Some enzymes also require the presence of specific co-enzymes, which are often
vitamins (like vitamin B complex) and mineral salts (such as calcium and iron), to function
properly. These enzymes are water-soluble and follow the lock-and-key hypothesis, where each
enzyme's active site is specifically shaped to bind to its substrate, ensuring efficient digestion.

28 Enzymes +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, and their activity is
significantly influenced by temperature. As the temperature increases, enzyme activity typically
rises because higher temperatures enhance the frequency of collisions between enzymes and
substrates, leading to faster reactions. However, each enzyme has an optimum temperature at

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which it functions most efficiently. For enzymes in the human body, this temperature is around
37°C, which is roughly body temperature. If the temperature exceeds this optimum range,
enzymes can become denatured, meaning their structure is disrupted, which decreases their

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activity. Extremely high temperatures can cause enzymes to lose their function completely.

SENSITIVITY EXPERIMENT
Take three test tubes containing egg
albumin, pepsin, and HCl. Shake them well.
Initially, they will be cloudy.
Place one test tube at 0°C, the second at
40°C, and the third at 100°C for half an
hour. Figure 5.2 Effect of Temperature on Enzymes
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Observe the results:
The contents of the test tube at 40°C will
be clear due to the optimum temperature.
The contents of the test tube at 0°C will
remain unchanged due to the low
temperature.
The contents of the test tube at 100°C will
show coagulated egg albumin due to the
high temperature.
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EFFECT OF PH ON ENZYMES
To demonstrate that enzymes are pH sensitive,
place egg albumin and pepsin in three test
tubes with different conditions:
one with HCl (acidic),
one with NaOH (basic),
EFFECT OF PH ON ENZYMES
and one with no pH modifier.
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Enzymes are significantly influenced by the

All tubes should be kept at 40°C for 30 acidity and alkalinity (pH) of the medium in
minutes. which they function.
In test tube 1 (acidic), the albumin is broken Each enzyme requires a specific pH value
down, resulting in clear liquid. In test tubes 2 for optimum efficiency. This is the optimum
and 3 (basic and neutral), the contents remain pH of the enzyme.
unchanged because pepsin requires an acidic The enzyme pepsin, which digests protein in
environment to work. This shows that enzyme the stomach, for example, works most
activity is pH-dependent. efficiently in an acidic medium and lipase
act best in an alkaline medium.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Enzymes 29

 1. Germination of seeds occurs in the presence of water, oxygen, and suitable temperature.
2. During germination, water enters the seed via the micropyle, causing the seed to absorb water

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and swell. The swelling ruptures the testa.
3. Water softens the testa, making it more permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
4. Water activates the secretion of enzymes in the cotyledons to digest insoluble starch and
protein stored in the cotyledons. Enzymes like amylase digest starch to glucose, and

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proteases convert proteins into amino acids.
5. The soluble products of digestion are translocated to the plumule and radicle. Glucose is used
for tissue respiration to provide energy for cell division and growth, forming new protoplasm
and making cellulose for new cell walls. Amino acids are used in the formation of new cell
proteins in the plumule and radicle.
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LOCK & KEY MODEL
The 'lock and key' hypothesis explains that
each enzyme has a specific shape with an
active site (the 'lock') that precisely fits the
substrate molecule (the 'key'). When the
substrate binds to the active site, the enzyme
slightly stresses or bends the substrate,
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causing it to break apart into two product

molecules. These products then separate from
the enzyme, leaving the active site free to
catalyze another reaction.
Figure 5.3 Lock & Key Model

ENZYME ACTIVE SITE

The 'lock and key' hypothesis explains enzyme action through several factors. Correct fit: Only
substrates with the right size and shape can fit into the enzyme’s active site, ensuring the
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enzyme and substrate are complementary. Temperature effects: Higher temperatures increase
the energy of enzyme molecules, but if the temperature gets too high, the enzyme can
denature and lose its ability to bind to the substrate. Substrate concentration: More substrate
molecules increase the likelihood of them entering the active site, especially as heat causes
both enzyme and substrate molecules to move more vigorously. pH changes: Extreme pH
levels can alter the enzyme’s active site shape, disrupting its function. Enzyme inhibition:
Large molecules, like water, can alter the enzyme’s shape, blocking its activity, which is
referred to as hydrolysis when water is involved in breaking down substrates. Condensation: In
contrast, condensation is the process where small molecules join to form larger molecules,
releasing water in the process.

30 Enzymes +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

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AUTOTROPHS
Green plants are autotrophic, meaning they produce their own food. They create glucose, a type of
carbohydrate, by using carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil. This process occurs
during photosynthesis, where plants convert light energy into chemical energy to build organic
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molecules. Through this cycle, plants provide energy for themselves and, indirectly, for other
organisms in the ecosystem.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process where plants turn light energy into chemical energy. The sugar
made during photosynthesis is glucose, which is a simple, soluble sugar. Plants often store
glucose as starch, an insoluble form of sugar, to slow down the breakdown of the sugar. The
starch is stored in plant cells and later changed into sucrose for transport to other parts of the
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plant, like storage organs. In these storage organs, sucrose is turned back into starch. An
example of a storage organ is the potato tuber.
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Equation 6.1 Photosynthesis

Figure 6.3 Simple Starch Figure 6.1 Structure

Figure 6.2 Ring Glucose
of Linear Glucose

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Plant Nutrition 31

 The light reactions occur in the presence of light
and involve the splitting of water molecules
through photolysis, which breaks water into
hydrogen and oxygen using the energy from light

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absorbed by chlorophyll. This energy is also
converted into chemical energy as ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).

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2 The dark reactions (also known as the Calvin
cycle) are the second stage of photosynthesis.
These reactions do not require light directly but
rely on the ATP and NADPH produced during the
light reactions. The dark reactions take place in
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Figure 6.4 Photolysis

IMPORTANCE
Carbohydrates produced during
photosynthesis provide chemical energy for
most life on Earth. Plants convert this sugar
into proteins or fats before passing it on. The
oxygen released is vital for respiration, and
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photosynthesis also helps reduce pollution by

converting carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.

Figure 6.5 Light & Dark Reaction

ROLE OF WATER
Experiments show that photosynthesis needs
chlorophyll, light, and carbon dioxide. It's hard
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to prove that water is essential since removing

water from a plant affects many functions, not
just photosynthesis, and can kill the plant. In
Figure 6.6 Pelargonium
experiments, plants like Pelargonium or Coleus
are used. It’s important to have a control group
for comparison: one leaf gets all the conditions
for photosynthesis, and another doesn’t. This
helps validate the results. Experiments should
be repeated to reduce errors, and results
Figure 6.7 Coleus
should be averaged when possible.

32 Plant Nutrition +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 1. Move the leaf to bubbling water briefly.
2. Put the Bunsen burner off.
3. Place the leaf in a test tube half-filled with alcohol.
4. Put the test tube into water that has just been

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heated up. The chlorophyll is taken out from the leaf,
yet becomes fragile.
5. Eliminate the leaf from liquor and flush it in

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steaming hot water. The leaf will soften as a result.
Figure 3.2 Osmosis
6. Spread out on a tile and add iodine arrangement.
7. Assuming that starch is available, the leaf will
become blue/dark; if not, it will stain brown.

TO PROVE THAT LIGHT, CARBON

DIOXIDE AND CHLOROPHYLL IS
NECESSARY FOR
TP
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
EXPERIMENT METHOD CONTROL
1. Cover the two sides of a destarched leaf with a piece
of dark paper.
Exposed parts of the
Need For Light 2. Uncover part of a similar leaf.
same leafs
3. expose for six hours to light.
4. Test for starch (Presence just in green regions).
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1. Utilize a destarched plant in a pot.

1. Use same plants
Need For Carbon 2. Cover one leaf with potassium hydroxide or soda 2. Enclose one leaf in
lime in an airless flask.
dioxide flask with some
3. expose for six hours to light.
water.
4. Test for starch (Present just in treated design).
1. On a destarched potted plant, there is a trace
Need For pattern of variegated leaves. Tracing of leaf pattern
Chlorophyll 2. Let the light in. is the control
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3. Examine for starch (only found in green areas).

OXYGEN AS BI-PRODUCT oxygen collect

The experiments confirm that plants produce

starch in the presence of carbon dioxide,
sunlight, and chlorophyll, with a byproduct.
sunlight
water plant
This can be observed using water plants like
Hydrilla or Elodea in lab studies on funnel support
photosynthesis rates. Figure 6.8 Setup to
determine Oxygen

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Plant Nutrition 33

 HYDRILLA EXPERIMENT
We can now look at a plant’s rate of photosynthesis, that is,
how quickly it produces oxygen. This can be measured by the

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amount of oxygen given off when the plant is submerged in
water. We can do this indirectly by measuring the release of
oxygen by a water plant. A submerged aquatic plant gives off
steady streams of bubbles. Faster bubbling indicates faster

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rate of photosynthesis.

LIMITING FACTORS
Carbon dioxide, light, and water significantly impact
the rate of photosynthesis in autotrophs, but other
factors can also play a role. The limiting factor
depends on which resource is in shortest supply. In
the short term, temperature or other environmental
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conditions may restrict the rate of photosynthesis,
even when light and other factors are optimal for
growth.
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34 Plant Nutrition +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 In many plants, leaves:
Absorb sunlight's energy
Capture carbon dioxide
Produce sugar

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Release oxygen as a byproduct
Process:
1. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through stomata, following a

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concentration gradient.
2. It moves freely through air spaces between cells.
3. It dissolves in the water layer surrounding mesophyll cells.
4. Xylem in vascular bundles transports water to the leaf, where carbon dioxide diffuses into
mesophyll cells and reaches chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
5. Phloem then transports the produced sugar away from the leaf (a process called
translocation).
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Part of leaf Details
Made of wax, waterproofing the leaf. It is secreted by cells of the upper
cuticle
epidermis.
These cells are thin and transparent to allow light to pass through. No
upper epidermis
chloroplasts are present. They act as a barrier to disease organisms.
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The main region for photosynthesis. Cells are columnar (quite long) and packed
palisade mesophyll with chloroplasts to trap light energy. They receive carbon dioxide by diffusion
from air spaces in the spongy mesophyll.
These cells are more spherical and loosely packed. They contain chloroplasts,
but not as many as in palisade cells. Air spaces between cells allow gaseous
spongy mesophyll
exchange - carbon dioxide to the cells, oxygen from the cells during
photosynthesis.
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This is a leaf vein made up of xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels bring water and
vascular bundle minerals to the leaf. Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino acids away (this
is called translocation).
This acts as a protective layer. Stomata are present to regulate the loss of water
lower epidermis vapour (this is called transpiration). It is the site of gaseous exchange into and
out of the leaf.
Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. These can control whether
stomata the stoma is open or closed. Water vapour passes out during transpiration.
Carbon dioxide diffuses in and oxygen diffuses out during photosynthesis.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Plant Nutrition 35

 THE ROLE OF ESSENTIAL IONS

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NITROGEN FERTILIZERS
Since agricultural soils often lack
organic nitrates, farmers add artificial
TP fertilizers (e.g., nitrate or ammonium
salts) to boost crop yield.

POTENTIAL RISK
Excess nitrates can leach into water
bodies, causing eutrophication, oxygen
depletion, and aquatic life loss. High
nitrate levels in drinking water may also
increase the risk of stomach cancer.
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Figure 6.9 Adding Fertilizer to the soil

36 Plant Nutrition +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

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TRANSPORT IN PLANT
Water transport in plants occurs through a
continuous system from roots to leaves,
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primarily via the xylem.
1. Absorption by Roots:
a. Water enters root hairs by osmosis from
the soil.
b. It moves through the root cortex by
apoplastic (cell wall) or symplastic
(cytoplasm) pathways.
2. Movement Through Xylem:
a. Water reaches the xylem vessels, which
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transport it upwards.
b. This movement is driven by root
pressure, capillary action, and
transpiration pull.
3. Transpiration Pull:
a. Water evaporates from leaf surfaces
(stomata) in transpiration.
b. This creates a negative pressure, pulling
more water upward from the roots.
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4. Cohesion-Tension Mechanism:
a. Water molecules stick together
(cohesion) and to xylem walls
(adhesion), enabling a continuous
column of water to move up.
5. Importance of Water Transport:
a. Maintains plant turgidity.
b. Supplies water for photosynthesis.
c. Transports minerals and nutrients.
d. Helps in cooling the plant through
transpiration.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants 37

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Figure 7.1 Cross Section of a Plant root Figure 7.2 3D Cross Section of a Plant root
TP
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Figure 7.3 SEM image of a lead cross-section

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38 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from

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plant leaves through stomata. Several factors
influence its rate:
Environmental Factors:
Temperature: Higher temperatures increase

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transpiration by speeding up evaporation
and diffusion of water vapor.
Humidity: High humidity reduces
transpiration as the air is already saturated
with moisture, slowing diffusion.
Wind Speed: Strong winds remove moisture
from leaf surfaces, maintaining a steep
concentration gradient and increasing
Figure 7.4 Relationship between several factors and Transpiration
transpiration.
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Light Intensity: More light causes stomata to PLANT-RELATED FACTORS
open wider for photosynthesis, increasing
transpiration. Number & Size of Stomata: More or larger
stomata result in higher transpiration rates.
WIND SPEED
Leaf Surface Area: Larger leaves with more
stomata lose more water.
Cuticle Thickness: A thicker waxy cuticle
reduces water loss.
Root System: A deeper or wider root system
absorbs more water, supporting transpiration
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POTOMETER
A potometer is a device used to measure the rate
of water uptake by a plant, which is indirectly
related to transpiration.

WORKING OF A POTOMETER
It consists of a water-filled tube with a freshly cut plant shoot inserted, ensuring an airtight seal
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with petroleum jelly to prevent air entry. A small air bubble is introduced into the capillary tube
to track water movement. As the plant transpires, it pulls water up through the xylem, causing
the air bubble to move. The distance traveled by the bubble over a set time helps determine the
rate of water uptake. Various environmental factors such as light, temperature, humidity, and
wind can be adjusted to study their effects on transpiration. The potometer operates under the
assumption that water uptake closely matches water loss through transpiration, although some
water is used for photosynthesis and cellular functions. This simple yet effective tool helps
scientists analyze how different conditions influence plant water loss.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants 39

 TRANSLOCATION
Translocation is the movement of sugars, amino
acids, and other nutrients within a plant,

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primarily through the phloem. It occurs from
the source (where food is produced, e.g.,
leaves) to the sink (where food is used or
stored, e.g., roots, fruits, or growing tissues).

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The process follows the Pressure-Flow
Hypothesis:
1. Loading at the Source: Sugars (mainly
sucrose) are actively transported into the
phloem from photosynthesizing cells,
drawing water in from the xylem by osmosis.
This creates high pressure.
2. Movement Through the Phloem: The
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pressure difference pushes the sugar-rich
solution through the sieve tubes toward
lower-pressure areas (sinks).
3. Unloading at the Sink: Sugars are actively or
passively removed at the sink, and water
exits back into the xylem, reducing pressure.

Unlike water transport in the xylem, which is

one-way (upward), translocation in the phloem
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is bidirectional, allowing nutrients to be

transported where needed. This process is
crucial for plant growth, energy distribution,
and storage.

Figure 7.5 Mechanism of Translocation

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40 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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DIET
Diet is essential for living organisms as it provides the necessary nutrients that are used for
energy, growth, repair, reproduction, and maintaining overall health. The nutrients in the diet can
be classified into two main types: inorganic and organic.
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METHOD OF GETTING FOOD COMPONENTS OF FOOD
Nutrition of an organism depends on 1. Carbohydrates
nutrition and uses that food for survival. 2. Fats
TYPES OF NUTRITION 3. Proteins
(a) AUTOTROPHIC 4. Vitamins
(b) HETEROTROPHIC 5. Minerals
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(c) HOLOZOIC NUTRITION 6. Water

(d) PARASITIC NUTRITION 7. Fibre (or roughage) : Human body is unable
(e) SAPROPHYTIC to digest fibre, insread the fiber is
(f) SYMBIOTIC digested by the bacteria living in the gut

KEY DEFINITIONS
Ingestion: Food is taken into the alimentary canal via the mouth.
Digestion: Large molecules of food are broken down into smaller molecules which can be
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absorbed into the bloodstream. This process, known as extracellular digestion, occurs outside
the cells of the body. Digestion involves both physical actions (like mastication by teeth,
stomach contractions, and emulsification by bile) and chemical actions (by digestive enzymes
in saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice). The chemical bonds in complex
food substances are broken down by specific enzymes in the presence of water, a process
called hydrolysis.
Absorption: Soluble food molecules pass through the gut wall into the bloodstream.
Egestion: Undigested food and other gut contents are removed as faeces via the anus (also
called defecation).

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Human Nutrition 41

 Food Deficiency
Sources Uses Disease
Group Symptoms

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Muscle development,
Proteins Eggs, meat Kwashiorkor -
energy supply

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Energy source,
Fats Butter, milk - Weakness
insulation

Potato, wheat,
Carbohydrates Energy source - Weakness
rice

Citrus fruits,
Vitamin C Healthy skin Scurvy Gum bleeding
vegetables

Butter, sunlight Weak, deformed

TP
Vitamin D Bone formation Rickets
exposure bones

Teeth and bone Weak teeth and

Calcium Milk, sea food -
formation bones

Haemoglobin
Iron Meat, liver Anaemia -
formation

Fresh fruits,
NO

Fibre Water absorption - Constipation

vegetables
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A : SCURVY B : RICKETS C : KWASHIORKAR D : OBESITY

THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL AND ASSOCIATED ORGANS

The human alimentary canal is differentiated into a series of specialised regions where food
ingested is successively digested and absorbed.
There is a close relationship between structure and functions of the main regions of the
human alimentary canal and its associated organs.

42 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Mouth

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Salivary Glands

Esophagus

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Liver

Stomach

Pancreas

Small Intestine
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Large Intestine

Rectum and Anus

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Figure 8.1 Front & Back view of Human Digestivee System

MOUTH
The mouth is where digestion begins. Teeth break food into smaller pieces (mechanical digestion),
and saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which starts breaking down starch (chemical digestion).
The tongue helps mix food and push it towards the esophagus.
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ESOPHAGUS
The esophagus is a muscular tube that transports food from the mouth to the stomach. It moves
food using peristalsis, a series of wave-like muscle contractions. No digestion occurs here

STOMACH
The stomach stores food and partially digests it. It releases gastric juice, which contains
hydrochloric acid (kills bacteria) and pepsin (digests proteins). The stomach muscles churn food
into a semi-liquid called chyme before passing it to the small intestine.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Human Nutrition 43

 Serosa
LAYERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. Mucosa
This is the innermost layer that secretes gastric juice, Muscularis

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including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and digestive
enzymes like pepsin. It also produces mucus, which Submucosa
protects the stomach lining from acid damage.
2. Submucosa Mucosa

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This layer contains blood vessels, nerves, and
connective tissue. It supplies nutrients to the stomach
and controls the release of digestive juices through
nerve signals.
3. Muscularis
The muscular layer is made up of three muscle types
(circular, longitudinal, and oblique). These muscles
contract to churn food, mix it with gastric juices, and Figure 8.2 Stomach Anatomy
push it toward the small intestine.
SPHINCTERS
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4. Serosa
The outermost layer is a thin, protective membrane The stomach has two sphincters that
that reduces friction between the stomach and control food movement. The lower
surrounding organs. It also helps hold the stomach in esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter)
place. is located between the esophagus and
stomach. It prevents acid reflux by
cardiac sphincter stopping stomach contents from flowing
back into the esophagus. If weakened, it
can cause heartburn. The pyloric
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sphincter is found between the stomach

pyloric sphincter and small intestine. It regulates the
release of chyme (partially digested
food) into the small intestine, ensuring
proper digestion and absorption. These
sphincters help maintain the smooth
flow of food and prevent backflow.
Figure 8.3 Sphinctors

SMALL INTESTINE
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The small intestine is the main site for digestion and

absorption. It is a long, coiled tube about 6 meters in
length and consists of three parts: the duodenum,
where bile and pancreatic juice mix with food for
digestion; the jejunum, where most nutrient absorption
occurs; and the ileum, which absorbs remaining
nutrients and passes undigested food to the large
intestine. Its inner surface has villi and microvilli, which
increase the surface area for efficient nutrient
absorption. The walls contain smooth muscles that
move food forward through peristalsis. Figure 8.4 Parts of Small Intestine

44 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Structure: Villi are tiny finger-like projections lining the small
intestine, and each villus is covered with even smaller projections
called microvilli, forming a brush border. They contain blood
capillaries and lacteals (lymph vessels) for nutrient absorption.

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Function: Villi and microvilli increase the surface area, allowing
efficient absorption of nutrients. Capillaries absorb glucose, amino
acids, and vitamins into the blood, while lacteals absorb fatty acids

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and glycerol into the lymphatic system.

Figure 8.5 Villi

LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine absorbs water from undigested food,
TP turning it into solid waste. It also contains helpful
bacteria that aid digestion. The remaining waste is stored
in the rectum before being eliminated.
Figure 8.6 Micro-Villi

RECTUM AND ANUS

The rectum stores waste (feces) until it is ready to be
expelled. The anus controls the process of egestion,
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where waste is eliminated from the body.

DO

Figure 8.7 Large

Figure 8.8 Liver Intestine

OTHER ORGANS
The liver produces bile, which helps break down fats into
smaller droplets for easier digestion. It also detoxifies
harmful substances and stores extra nutrients.
The pancreas produces digestive enzymes (amylase,
lipase, protease) to help digest carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins. It also releases insulin, a hormone that regulates
blood sugar levels. Figure 8.9 Pancreas

Notes by Ghulam Rasool +92-3221424146 Human Nutrition 45

 FUNCTION OF TEETH
Teeth are hard structures in the mouth that
help in biting and chewing food. They are

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embedded in the jawbone and covered by
gums. Humans have two sets of teeth: milk
teeth (deciduous teeth), which appear in
childhood and are replaced by permanent

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teeth in adulthood.

COMPOSITION OF TEETH
Teeth are made of four main tissues. Enamel is the
hardest outer layer that protects against damage.
Dentin lies beneath enamel and supports it. Pulp is
TP the soft inner part containing blood vessels and
nerves. Cementum covers the tooth root and helps
anchor it to the jawbone.
Figure 8.10 Structure of Teeth

TYPES OF TEETH
Humans have four types of teeth, each with a
specific function. Incisors are sharp and used for
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cutting food. Canines are pointed for tearing.

Premolars have flat surfaces for grinding. Molars are
larger and help in crushing and chewing food.
Figure 8.11 Types of Human Teeth

Tooth Decay: Process and Prevention

Tooth decay occurs when bacteria in the
DO

mouth break down sugars from food,

producing acids that dissolve enamel. If
untreated, decay can reach the pulp,
causing pain and infection. Prevention
includes brushing teeth twice daily,
flossing, reducing sugary foods, and
visiting the dentist regularly for
checkups and cleaning.

46 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases in the body. It allows oxygen to
enter the bloodstream for cellular respiration and removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of
metabolism. The main organs involved are the nose, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm.
TP
Breathing occurs through inhalation (taking in oxygen) and exhalation (releasing carbon dioxide).
This process is essential for energy production and maintaining life.
NO

Nasal Cavity

Pharynx
Glottis
Epiglottis

Trachea
DO

Bronchi

Heart

Esophagus

Lung lobes

Figure 9.1 Front and Back side of Human Respiratory System

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Human Gas Exchange 47

 Energy is required for various biological processes in living organisms, including:
Synthesis of Large Molecules – Energy is used to build complex molecules like proteins from
amino acids and DNA from nucleotides.
Maintenance of Body Temperature – Metabolic reactions, especially in the liver, release heat to

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maintain a stable body temperature.
Active Transport – Moves molecules against the concentration gradient, such as ion uptake by
roots in plants.

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Cell Division and Growth – Essential for replacing billions of cells daily and for chromosome
replication and separation.
Muscle Contraction – Movement, including walking, heartbeat, and peristalsis, requires energy.
A lack of oxygen or food limits energy supply.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange, supplying oxygen to the body and
removing carbon dioxide. It consists of several key structures that work together to ensure
efficient breathing.
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The nasal passages filter, warm, and moisten incoming air. Goblet cells produce mucus to trap
dust and pathogens, while cilia move mucus towards the throat to be swallowed.
The trachea is a tube that carries air to the lungs. It is supported by rings of cartilage, which
prevent it from collapsing during breathing.
The bronchi branch off from the trachea, with one leading to each lung. These further divide into
bronchioles, which are smaller tubes that carry air to the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.
The lungs are paired organs responsible for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. They are
surrounded by a double-layered pleura, which protects them and allows smooth movement
during breathing.
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The rib cage protects the lungs and heart, while the intercostal muscles help expand and contract
the chest, assisting in breathing.
The pleural cavity contains fluid that reduces friction between the lungs and the ribcage. The
pleural membrane separates the lungs from surrounding structures, ensuring smooth respiratory
movements
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Figure 9.2 Gas Exchange

Figure 9.3 Alveolar Sacs

48 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 BREATHING
Breathing is the process of moving air in and
out of the lungs. It involves two main phases:

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inhalation (inspiration) and exhalation
(expiration).

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INHLATION & EXHALATION
During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and
moves downward, while the external intercostal
muscles contract, lifting the ribcage. This
increases the thoracic cavity volume and lowers
air pressure inside the lungs, causing air to rush
in.
TP During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and
moves upward, and the intercostal muscles relax,
bringing the ribs back to their original position.
This decreases the thoracic cavity volume,
increases air pressure inside the lungs, and forces
air out.
This cycle repeats continuously, ensuring a
constant supply of oxygen and the removal of
carbon dioxide from the body.
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Adaptations of Respiratory Surfaces in Animals

Respiratory surfaces in animals are adapted to maximize gas exchange efficiency. These
adaptations include:
1. Large Surface Area – Increases the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged, e.g.,
alveoli in mammals and gills in fish.
2. Thin Walls – Respiratory surfaces are one cell thick, allowing rapid diffusion of gases.
3. Moist Surface – Gases dissolve in moisture before diffusing, ensuring efficient exchange.
4. Rich Blood Supply – Capillaries surround respiratory surfaces to transport oxygen and remove
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carbon dioxide quickly.

5. Ventilation Mechanism – Ensures a continuous supply of fresh oxygen, such as breathing
movements in mammals or water flow over gills in fish.
These adaptations allow different animals to survive in their respective environments by efficiently
obtaining oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Human Gas Exchange 49

 Movement of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide In and Out of Blood
The exchange of oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) occurs by diffusion at the lungs and body
tissues.
In the lungs, oxygen from inhaled air diffuses across the thin walls of the alveoli into the blood

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capillaries. It binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported to body tissues.
At the tissues, oxygen is released from hemoglobin and diffuses into body cells for respiration. At
the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste product of respiration, diffuses from the cells into the

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blood.
In the lungs, carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli and is expelled during
exhalation. This continuous exchange ensures oxygen supply for energy production and the
removal of carbon dioxide.

FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE

Several factors influence the efficiency of gas exchange in organisms:

1. Surface Area – A larger respiratory surface (e.g., alveoli in lungs or gills in fish) allows more
TP
oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse.
2. Thickness of Membrane – Thinner membranes speed up diffusion, while thicker membranes
slow it down.
3. Moisture – Respiratory surfaces must be moist for gases to dissolve and diffuse efficiently.
4. Concentration Gradient – A steeper gradient between oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in
blood and air/water increases diffusion speed.
5. Ventilation Rate – Faster breathing or water flow over gills ensures a continuous supply of
fresh oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide.
6. Blood Supply – A rich capillary network around respiratory surfaces maintains the oxygen and
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carbon dioxide gradient.

7. Altitude – At high altitudes, oxygen levels are lower, reducing gas exchange efficiency.
8. Health Conditions – Diseases like asthma or pneumonia can affect lung function, reducing
oxygen intake.
These factors ensure that organisms efficiently obtain oxygen for respiration and remove carbon
dioxide.
DO

50 Transport in flowering plants / Transport in plants +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

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Figure 10.1 3D View of Mitochondria

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells release energy from glucose to produce ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell.
TP
Figure 10.2 Aerobic Respiratiion

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Figure 10.3 Structure of ATP
Aerobic Respiration – Requires oxygen and
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occurs in the mitochondria. It produces a large

amount of ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration – Occurs without

oxygen, producing less ATP and lactic acid (in
animals) or ethanol and carbon dioxide (in
yeast).
2 2
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MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are energy-producing organelles
where aerobic respiration occurs, generating
ATP. They have a double membrane, with the
inner membrane folded into cristae to increase
surface area. The matrix contains enzymes,
DNA, and ribosomes. Mitochondria are
abundant in energy-demanding cells like
muscles and nerves.
Figure 10.4 Mitochondria

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Cellular Respiration 51

 Oxygen Debt
Oxygen debt occurs after anaerobic respiration, when the body needs extra oxygen to break down
lactic acid produced during intense exercise. This oxygen is used to convert lactic acid into carbon
dioxide and water in the liver. Heavy breathing after exercise helps repay this debt, restoring

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normal oxygen levels and preventing muscle fatigue.

EXPERIMENT

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Germinating seeds respire and release heat energy.
To demonstrate this, place germinating seeds in one
thermos flask and boiled seeds in another. Insert a
thermometer in each flask, seal with cotton wool, and
record the temperatures. After 24-48 hours, the
temperature in the germinating seeds flask rises,
while the boiled seeds flask remains unchanged. This
proves that respiration releases energy.
TP
RESPIRATION IN YEAST
The experiment proves that yeast respires
anaerobically, breaking down glucose into
alcohol and carbon dioxide without oxygen.
The limewater turning milky confirms CO₂
production, while the fermented smell
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indicates alcohol formation. This

demonstrates that anaerobic respiration in
yeast is essential for processes like
fermentation.
DO

52 Cellular Respiration +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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FUNCTION OF A TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Plant and animal cells require the transport of essential substances, such as glucose, oxygen for
TP
respiration, and enzymes for biochemical reactions. Since not all cells are in direct contact with the
external environment, organisms have developed systems to distribute these materials. In animals,
the circulatory system ensures the efficient transport of glucose and other substances via blood.
The efficiency of transport is influenced by factors such as the distance across cell membranes and
the volume of substances involved.
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Division

Growth

Figure 11.1 Growth & division of Ameoba

SURFACE AREA: VOLUME RATIO

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TRANSPORT IN MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISM

As organisms grow larger and more complex, diffusion alone cannot supply oxygen and nutrients
to all cells. To ensure survival, they develop a transport system. Mammals have a double
circulatory system, where the heart pumps blood efficiently to support their high activity levels.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Transport in Humans / Transport in Animals 53

 Human Heart
The human heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body, supplying oxygen and
nutrients while removing waste. It has four chambers: the right atrium and ventricle pump
deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left atrium and ventricle pump oxygenated blood to

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the body. The heart functions through double circulation, ensuring efficient oxygen delivery.
Valves prevent backflow, and coronary arteries supply the heart with oxygen-rich blood.
Controlled by electrical impulses, the heart beats rhythmically to maintain circulation.

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AORTA

SUPERIOR
VENA CAVA

PULMONARY
ARTERY

PULMONARY LEFT ATRIUM

TP VEIN
PULMONARY
VALVE
RIGHT ATRIUM
AORTIC
TRICUSPID VALVE VALVE

RIGHT VENTRICLE
CORONARY
ARTERY
SEPTUM
LEFT
VENTRICLE
INFERIOR VENA
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CAVA

Figure 11.2 External view of Human Heart Figure 11.3 Anatomy of Human Heart
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Figure 11.4 Blood flow

54 Transport in Humans / Transport in Animals +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Human Heart and Circulatory System
The vena cava is a large vein that brings deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium,
which then contracts to push blood into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents backflow
between these chambers. The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery, which carries

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it to the lungs for oxygenation, with semilunar valves preventing backflow.
The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium, which contracts to
send blood into the left ventricle. The bicuspid valve prevents backflow here. The left ventricle,

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with its thick muscular walls, pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta, which distributes it to the
body through branching arteries.
The heart follows double circulation, meaning blood passes twice—once through the pulmonary
circulation (heart-lungs-heart) for oxygenation and then through systemic circulation (heart-body-
heart) to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues.

TP
NO
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CONTROL OF HEARTBEAT
The heartbeat is regulated by three main mechanisms. The nervous system sends impulses to
speed up or slow down the heart rate. The pacemaker, a group of specialized cells, ensures
rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle. Additionally, hormones like adrenaline
stimulate the heart to beat faster during stress or excitement.
CONTROL OF HEARTBEAT

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Transport in Humans / Transport in Animals 55

 Heart Health
Maintaining a healthy heart is essential for overall well-being. A balanced diet, rich in fruits,
vegetables, and low in saturated fats, helps prevent heart disease. Regular exercise strengthens
the heart and improves circulation. Avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol reduces the risk of

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high blood pressure and artery blockage. Managing stress and maintaining a healthy weight also
contribute to better heart health. Regular medical check-ups help detect and prevent potential
heart problems early.

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High Cholesterol and Heart Disease
High cholesterol leads to plaque buildup in arteries, causing atherosclerosis, which narrows blood
flow. This increases the risk of angina and heart attacks. Cholesterol mainly comes from saturated
fats in the diet.
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High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
Blood pressure is the force of blood against artery walls. Hypertension makes the heart work
harder, increasing the risk of artery damage, angina, and heart attacks.
Coronary Artery Blockage and Heart Attacks
The coronary arteries supply oxygen to the heart. A blockage, often from a blood clot on plaque,
can lead to a heart attack, causing oxygen deprivation and tissue damage in the heart muscle.
NO
DO

56 Transport in Humans / Transport in Animals +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 COMPARISON ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY

CROSS SECTION muscle

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single
fibrous coat
cell
lumen

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fairly narrow can Very narrow; red blood cells
INTERNAL fairly wide
expand =(pulse) squeeze through.

The walls are Wall is composed of a single

The wall is
relatively thin; cell layer; gaps between
relatively thick and
WALL STRUCTURE there are valves to cells allow exchange of
also elastic, to
keep blood moving materials with surrounding
withstand pressure.
in one direction. tissues.
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BLOOD DIRECTION
Blood flows away Blood flows Blood flows from arteries to
from the heart. towards the heart. veins.

High, fairly
BLOOD PRESSURE Low Very Low
irregular.

BLOOD FLOW RATE Rapid, irregular. Slow, regular. Very slow.

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TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Blood is a vital transport fluid that carries oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout
the body. It consists of red blood cells (RBCs), which
WBC
contain hemoglobin to transport oxygen, and white
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RBC
blood cells (WBCs), which help defend against
infections. Platelets play a crucial role in blood
lymphocyte
clotting, preventing excessive bleeding. The plasma,
which is the liquid portion of blood, carries cells,
neutrophil
nutrients, hormones, and waste materials. In addition
to transport, blood helps regulate body temperature
and maintain pH balance, ensuring proper bodily
functions.

Blood Clot
Figure 11.5 Components of Human Blood

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Transport in Humans / Transport in Animals 57

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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PATHOGENS
A pathogen is a disease-causing organism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.
Transmissible diseases are those that can be passed from one host to another. Pathogens can be
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transmitted directly through blood or body fluids and indirectly via contaminated surfaces, food,
air, or animals.

BODY’S DEFENSE
NO

MOSQUITOES

Figure 12.1 Mosquito

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CHOLERA
HIV AND AIDS

58 Disease and immunity + Drugs +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Drugs
A drug is any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions. Drugs can
have beneficial effects, such as relieving pain or treating infections, but some may also be harmful
if misused.

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USE OF ANTIBIOTICS

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Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections. They work by killing bacteria or stopping
their growth. However, antibiotics do not affect viruses, which means they cannot be used to treat
viral infections like the flu or common cold.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections. They work by killing bacteria or stopping
their growth. However, antibiotics do not affect viruses, which means they cannot be used to treat
viral infections like the flu or common cold.
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Active and Passive Immunity
Active immunity is the body’s defense against pathogens by producing its own antibodies. Each
pathogen has unique antigens, which have specific shapes. The immune system responds by
producing antibodies, which either destroy the pathogen directly or mark it for destruction by
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phagocytes. Antibodies have complementary shapes that match specific antigens.

Vaccination and Immunity
Active immunity is developed either after infection or through vaccination. In vaccination:
1. Weakened pathogens or their antigens are introduced into the body.
2. The immune system responds by producing antibodies.
3. Memory cells are formed, providing long-term immunity.
Vaccination helps control the spread of transmissible diseases by reducing the number of
susceptible individuals in a population.
Passive Immunity
DO

Passive immunity is a temporary defense against pathogens where antibodies are acquired from
another source, such as placental transfer during pregnancy or through breast milk. This provides
immediate protection, but memory cells are not produced, so immunity is short-term.
Breastfeeding is important for infants as it helps protect them from infections until their immune
system matures.
HIV and the Immune System
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) weakens the immune system by reducing lymphocyte
numbers, which lowers the body’s ability to produce antibodies. This makes individuals more
vulnerable to infections and diseases.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Disease and immunity + Drugs 59

 A drug is any substance taken externally that alters chemical reactions in the body. Drugs can be
administered orally, by injection, applied to the skin, or inhaled. They are classified based on their
effects on the central nervous system. Stimulants, like caffeine, speed up nerve impulses, while
depressants, such as alcohol and nicotine, slow them down. Painkillers, like aspirin, block pain

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signals, and narcotics, such as heroin, create euphoria and may lead to dependence.

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DRUG ADDICTION
Drugs are medicines used to cure diseases, relieve symptoms, and ease pain. Antibiotics like
penicillin and tetracycline treat bacterial infections by stopping bacterial growth without harming
body tissues. Aspirin is a painkiller that reduces fever and inflammation by blocking pain signals,
though it is not recommended for children under 12 due to risks like stomach cramps and Reye’s
syndrome. Some drugs can harm fetal development during childbirth. Drug addiction involves
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cravings for substances like caffeine or nicotine, while drug dependence leads to physical or
psychological reliance. Heroin, a narcotic, causes severe dependence and health issues.

EFFECTS OF HEROIN ON THE BODY

Heroin slows down brain function and depresses the central nervous system. It causes euphoria,
drowsiness, and pain relief but also leads to addiction, respiratory depression, and an increased
risk of infections due to needle use. Long-term use damages organs and weakens the immune
system.
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Effects of Alcohol on the Body:

Alcohol affects coordination, reaction time, and judgment by slowing down brain activity. It
causes dizziness, nausea, dehydration, and impaired decision-making. High doses can lead to
unconsciousness or alcohol poisoning.
Long-Term Effects of Habitual Excessive Consumption of Alcohol:
Chronic alcohol abuse can cause liver damage (cirrhosis), brain damage, high blood pressure,
heart disease, weakened immunity, and an increased risk of cancer. It can also lead to addiction,
memory loss, and mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.
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SMOKING
Smoking involves inhaling harmful chemicals like nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide. Nicotine is
addictive, tar damages the lungs, and carbon monoxide reduces oxygen in the blood. Smoking
increases the risk of lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. It also contributes to heart
disease, high blood pressure, and stroke by narrowing blood vessels and reducing oxygen supply.
Smoking and Pregnancy
Smoking during pregnancy reduces oxygen to the baby, leading to low birth weight, premature
birth, and stillbirth. It increases the risk of miscarriage and developmental issues in the baby.
Carbon monoxide from smoke can interfere with fetal growth.

60 Disease and immunity + Drugs +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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EXCRETION IN ORGANISMS
Excretion is the process of removing toxic materials and waste products of metabolism from the
body to maintain homeostasis.
TP
1. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is a waste product of respiration and is excreted through the lungs when
we breathe out.
2. Urea is a toxic waste formed in the liver from the breakdown of excess amino acids. It is
excreted by the kidneys in urine.
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Organs of the Urinary System

The kidneys filter blood, removing urea, excess salts, and water to form urine. The ureters
transport urine to the bladder, where it is stored before being excreted through the urethra.
Need for Excretion
Urea is a toxic waste product formed from amino acid breakdown. If not removed, it can build up
and harm the body, making excretion essential for maintaining health.
Structure of a Nephron
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The Bowman’s capsule surrounds the glomerulus,
DO

where filtration occurs. The tubules and Loop of Henle reabsorb useful substances, while the
collecting duct carries urine to the ureter.
Urine Formation
Blood enters the glomerulus, where water, glucose, urea, and ions are filtered out. The tubules
reabsorb essential substances, while excess water, ions, and urea are excreted as urine.
Liver’s Role in Assimilation & Deamination
The liver converts amino acids into proteins for body functions. Excess amino acids undergo
deamination, where they are broken down into urea, which is transported to the kidneys for
excretion.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Excretion 61

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ADRENAL GLANDS

KIDNEYS

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URETERS

RENAL VEIN
RENAL ARTERY

TP
URINARY BLADDER

URETHRA

Figure 13.1 Human (male) Excretory System

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HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system is responsible for removing waste products and excess substances from the
blood, maintaining water and salt balance, and regulating blood pressure. It consists of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
Kidneys
The kidneys filter blood, removing urea, excess salts, and water to produce urine. They also help
regulate blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and pH levels.
Ureters
DO

The ureters are narrow tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder using
peristaltic movements.
Bladder
The bladder is a muscular sac that stores urine until it is excreted. It expands as it fills and
signals the brain when it needs to be emptied.
Urethra
The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. In males, it also serves
as a passage for sperm.
This system ensures the removal of harmful waste while maintaining the body’s internal balance.

62 Excretion +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Structure of the Kidney
The kidney is a bean-shaped organ responsible for filtering blood
and producing urine. It has the following main structures:
Cortex – The outer layer where filtration occurs in the

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nephrons.
Medulla – The inner region containing loops of Henle and
collecting ducts, which help in urine concentration.

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Renal Pelvis – A funnel-like structure that collects urine from
the collecting ducts and directs it to the ureter.
Nephrons – The functional units of the kidney that filter waste
and regulate water and salt balance.
Renal Artery and Vein – The renal artery brings oxygenated
blood to the kidney, while the renal vein carries filtered blood
back to circulation.
Ureter – A tube that transports urine from the kidney to the
bladder.
TP Capsule
Figure 13.2 Human Kidney

Cortex NEPHRON

Renal A nephron is the basic functional unit of the

pyramids kidney, responsible for filtering blood and
forming urine.

Renal
Medulla
NO

Glomerulus
Renal
Pelvis

Figure 13.3 Kidney Dissection

Bownman’s
STRUCTURE OF A NEPHRON Capsule

The Bowman’s capsule is a cup-shaped structure that Proximal

surrounds the glomerulus, a network of capillaries Convoluted
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where ultrafiltration occurs, allowing water, glucose, Tubule

urea, and ions to pass into the capsule. The tubules Distal
include the proximal convoluted tubule, where Convoluted
Tubule
glucose, water, and ions are reabsorbed, and the
distal convoluted tubule, which regulates salt and Loop of
Henle
water balance. The Loop of Henle, a U-shaped
structure, plays a crucial role in concentrating urine
by reabsorbing water and salts. Finally, the collecting Collecting Duct
duct gathers urine from multiple nephrons and
transports it to the renal pelvis for excretion.
Figure 13.4 Nephron

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Excretion 63

 A kidney dialysis machine is a medical device that removes waste, excess salts, and water from the
blood when the kidneys fail to function properly. It works through dialysis, a process that mimics
the kidney’s filtration. The patient’s blood is drawn into the machine, where it passes through a
dialysis membrane. This membrane allows waste products like urea and excess ions to diffuse into

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a dialysis fluid while retaining essential substances like glucose and proteins. The cleaned blood is
then returned to the patient’s body. Dialysis helps maintain proper blood composition and
prevents the harmful effects of kidney failure.

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TP
NO

Figure 3.2 Osmosis

EXCRETION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration and must be removed to maintain the body's pH
balance. It is transported in the blood primarily as bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻), while some dissolve
DO

in plasma or bind to hemoglobin. The lungs excrete carbon dioxide through exhalation. When
blood reaches the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli and is expelled
during breathing. This prevents the buildup of carbonic acid, which can lower blood pH and
disrupt normal cell function.

64 Excretion +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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Figure 14.1 Human Brain

COORDINATION AND CONTROL

The human body maintains coordination and control through the nervous system and the endocrine
system. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, transmitting electrical
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signals for rapid responses. The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones
released by glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. While the nervous system
provides quick, short-term responses, the endocrine system ensures long-term regulation of
growth, metabolism, and homeostasis. Both systems work together to maintain balance and
respond to internal and external stimuli.

MAMMALIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The mammalian nervous system is divided into the central
NO

nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system

(PNS).

TYPES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System (CNS) – The brain and spinal cord make up the CNS. The brain
processes information and controls body functions, while the spinal cord transmits signals
between the brain and the rest of the body.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – This consists of nerves outside the CNS that connect the
brain and spinal cord to the limbs and organs. It includes the sensory nerves, which carry
DO

information to the CNS, and the motor nerves, which transmit responses to muscles and
glands.

NEURON Nodes
Nucleus Dendrites

A neuron is a specialized cell that transmits

electrical and chemical signals in the nervous
system. It consists of a cell body (soma), which
contains the nucleus and organelles, dendrites that
Mylin Sheath
receive signals from other neurons, and an axon that
carries impulses away from the cell body to other
Axon Cell Body
neurons or muscles.
Figure 14.2 Neuron

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control 65

 Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe

Occipital Lobe

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Optic Nerve
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Temporal Lobe Cerebellum

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Medulla Oblongata
Spinal Cord

F-POT
Figure 14.3a Brain Top View Figure 14.3b Longitudinal View Figure 14.3c Bottom view

The human brain is a complex organ divided into different regions, each with specialized functions.
The cerebrum, the largest part, is responsible for intelligence, memory, emotions, and voluntary
movements. It is divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, which controls thinking, decision-making,
and voluntary movements; the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensory information like
TP
touch and temperature; the temporal lobe, which handles hearing, memory, and language
comprehension; and the occipital lobe, which processes visual information. The cerebellum,
located at the back of the brain, maintains balance, posture, and coordination. The medulla
oblongata, part of the brainstem, controls involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and
reflex actions. The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone release
by controlling the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that influence growth and metabolism.
All these parts work together to process information, control body functions, and ensure survival.
NO

Grey matter
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is a vital part of the central nervous
system (CNS) that connects the brain to the rest of
the body. It runs through the vertebral column and
is protected by the vertebrae, meninges, and White matter
cerebrospinal fluid.
DO

EXCRETION OF CARBON DIOXIDE: Spinal Nerves

Figure 14.4 Cross section of Spinal Cord

TYPES OF NEURONS
The spinal cord contains sensory neurons,
which carry signals from the body to the
brain, and motor neurons, which transmit
commands from the brain to muscles and
glands. It also controls reflex actions
through reflex arcs, allowing the body to
respond quickly to stimuli without direct
involvement of the brain.
Figure 14.5 Types of Neurons

66 Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
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TP Figure 14.6 Synapse

SPINAL CORD
A simple reflex arc is a rapid and involuntary response to a stimulus, allowing the body to react
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quickly without conscious thought. It begins with a receptor, which detects a stimulus such as heat
or pain and generates a nerve impulse. This impulse is transmitted by a sensory neurone to the
relay neurone in the spinal cord. The relay neurone processes the information and passes it to a
motor neurone, which then carries the impulse to an effector such as a muscle or gland. The
effector responds by contracting or secreting a substance, helping the body avoid harm. This
reflex action ensures quick responses for protection and survival.

SPINAL CORD
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary
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actions like pupil contraction and peristalsis, while

voluntary responses involve conscious actions like
walking and writing. Nerves consist of neurons that
transmit impulses. Sensory neurones carry signals
to the CNS, relay neurones process them, and motor
neurones send signals to effectors. The myelin
sheath insulates neurones, ensuring fast impulse
transmission, which is crucial for quick reflex
actions. Figure 14.7 Reflex Arc &
Position of a Neuron in Nerve

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control 67

 The eye is a complex organ responsible for vision. The conjunctiva is a thin, transparent membrane
that protects the eye and keeps it moist with tears, which contain enzymes to kill bacteria. The
cornea, a transparent curved layer at the front of the eye, protects the eye and helps focus light by
bending it. The iris controls the size of the pupil, adjusting how much light enters the eye. In dim

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light, the pupil widens, while in bright light, it narrows to protect the retina. The lens, held by
ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments, changes shape for focusing. This process, called
accommodation, allows the lens to become thin for distant objects and thick for near ones.

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The aqueous humor, watery fluid in front of the lens, provides nutrients and helps bend light. The
vitreous humor, a jelly-like substance filling the eye behind the lens, maintains the eye's shape and
supports the retina. The retina is the innermost layer containing light-sensitive cells—cones for
color and sharp vision in bright light, concentrated in the fovea, and rods for night vision, which
require vitamin A to function. The blind spot is an area of the retina without light receptors where
the optic nerve exits the eye. The choroid, the middle layer, supplies nutrients and absorbs stray
light to prevent reflection. The sclera, the tough white outer layer, protects the eye and provides
attachment points for muscles that move the eyeball.
Sclera External Muscles
TP Choroid

Pupil Viterous Body

Iris
Pupil
Sclera
Cornea Optic Nerve
Retina
Lens
Figure 14.8 Front and side view of eyeball Optic disc
Cilliary Muscles Fovea
NO

Figure 14.9 Dissection of eyeball

Radial Muscle
Contracted Circular Muscle
Contracted
Radial Muscle
Circular Muscle relaxed
relaxed

Pupil

Pupil

Large Pupil in Dim Light Small Pupil in Bright Light

DO

Figure 14.10 Pupil Size adjustment

Light Circular Radial Ciliary

Pupil Result Distance Suspensory Lens Refraction
Intensity Muscles Muscles Muscles

Becomes Less light Far Relax Taut Thinner, less Decreased

Bright Contract Relax smaller enters curved

Becomes More light Near Contract Relaxed Thicker, Increased

Dim Relax Contract larger enters more curved

Adjustment to Distance Table

68 Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 Hormones are chemical substances produced by glands and carried in the bloodstream to specific
target organs, where they alter activity. The endocrine glands that produce hormones include the
adrenal glands, which release adrenaline to increase heart rate and blood glucose levels in
stressful situations. The pancreas produces insulin to lower blood sugar and glucagon to raise it.

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The pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH) to
regulate reproductive functions. The testes produce testosterone, responsible for male secondary
sexual characteristics, while the ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone, which regulate the

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menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

TP
NO

Gland Hormone Function

Pituitary gland Growth hormone Controls the rate of bone growth.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine.

Gonad-stimulating hormone Stimulates gonads (ovaries and testes) to secrete sex hormones.

Thyroid gland Thyroxine Promotes reabsorption of water in kidney nephrons and reduces urine volume.

Anti-diuretic hormone Influences growth (especially in childhood) by controlling respiration rate and
(ADH) or Vasopressin metabolic processes.
DO

Regulates the amount of blood glucose by promoting storage of excess glucose

Pancreas Insulin
as glycogen in liver and muscles.

Regulates the amount of blood glucose by converting glycogen in liver and

Glucagon
muscles to glucose when blood glucose is low.

Prepares the body for action and emergency. Mobilizes the body for unusual
Adrenal glands Adrenaline exertion, stress, anxiety, or fear. Increases heart rate, blood supply to muscles,
metabolic rate, oxygen supply, and glucose supply.

Ovaries Oestrogen Responsible for thickening of the endometrial wall.

Testes Testosterone Controls sperm production and secondary sexual characteristics of males.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control 69

 Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a constant internal environment,
ensuring stable conditions for cells to function properly. This includes regulating body
temperature, blood glucose levels, and water balance.
Negative feedback is a control mechanism that helps maintain homeostasis by reversing changes

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in the body to keep conditions close to a set point. When a factor, such as temperature or glucose
level, moves away from its ideal value, the body responds to bring it back. For example, if body
temperature rises, sweating and vasodilation help cool it down. If it falls, shivering and

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vasoconstriction help increase it. This continuous cycle helps keep the body's internal conditions
stable.

INSULATION AND TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Mammals maintain a constant internal body temperature through insulation and physiological
responses. A thick layer of fat (adipose tissue) under the skin traps heat, reducing heat loss in cold
TP
conditions. Fur or hair also provides insulation by trapping air, which acts as a thermal barrier.
Role of the Hypothalamus and Skin Receptors
The hypothalamus in the brain acts as the body’s thermostat, detecting changes in blood
temperature and sending signals to regulate it. Temperature receptors in the skin detect external
temperature changes and send signals to the hypothalamus, which then triggers appropriate
responses.

MAINTAINING BODY TEMPERATURE

NO

Sweating: When the body overheats, sweat glands produce

sweat, which evaporates from the skin, cooling the body.
Shivering: In cold conditions, muscles contract rapidly,
generating heat through increased respiration.
Hair Erector Muscles: In cold weather, these muscles contract,
making hair stand up (goosebumps), trapping more air for
insulation.
Vasodilation: When hot, arterioles widen, increasing blood
flow to skin capillaries, allowing heat to escape.
Vasoconstriction: In cold conditions, arterioles narrow,
DO

reducing blood flow to the skin, conserving heat.

Figure 14.11 Cross section of Skin

DERMIS
Consists of fibrous connective tissues. Embedded are blood vessels, sebaceous (oil) glands, sweat
glands, and sense receptors (for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain).
Fat: Layers of fat under the skin increase the insulation of the body.
Hairs: Hairs on the skin can be raised by the contraction of hair erector muscles. This traps an
insulating layer of air around the body which slows down heat loss.

70 Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 Negative Feedback Control is a mechanism that helps maintain homeostasis by reversing any
change from a set point. When a condition deviates from the normal range, sensors detect the
change and trigger a response to restore balance.
For example:

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Blood Glucose Regulation: If blood sugar rises, the pancreas releases insulin, which lowers
glucose levels. If blood sugar falls, glucagon is released to increase glucose levels.
Temperature Regulation: If the body overheats, sweating and vasodilation cool it down. If it

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gets too cold, shivering and vasoconstriction generate and conserve heat.
Negative feedback ensures stability by opposing any excessive changes, keeping the body’s
conditions within a normal range.

BLOOD GLUCOSE CONTROL

TP
Maintaining a stable blood glucose concentration is essential
to ensure cells receive a constant supply of energy for
respiration. If glucose levels become too high, it can lead to
cellular dehydration and increased blood volume due to
osmosis. If too low, cells will lack glucose for respiration,
leading to fatigue and organ failure.
The liver and pancreas regulate blood glucose levels using the
hormones insulin and glucagon. When blood glucose is high,
the pancreas releases insulin, which signals liver cells to
NO

absorb glucose and store it as glycogen. When blood glucose

is low, the pancreas secretes glucagon, which triggers the liver
to convert stored glycogen back into glucose and release it
into the bloodstream. This regulation follows a negative
feedback mechanism to maintain balance.
Type 1 diabetes (Diabetes Mellitus ) occurs when the
pancreas does not produce enough insulin by the pancreas’s
Islets of Langerhans, causing high blood glucose levels and
glucose in urine. It is managed through insulin injections to
regulate blood sugar levels.
DO

Figure 14.12 Negative Feedback Loop

Osmoregulation
When the body loses too much water, the hypothalamus detects the increase in blood solute
concentration. To conserve water, it signals the pituitary gland to release anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH). ADH makes the kidneys reabsorb more water, producing less, concentrated urine. If the
body has excess water, ADH secretion decreases, leading to the excretion of more, dilute urine.
This negative feedback mechanism maintains the body's water balance and prevents dehydration
or overhydration.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control 71

 The human skeleton consists of 206 bones and provides support,
protection, movement, and blood cell production.
Main Parts:
Axial Skeleton – Includes the skull, spine, and rib cage, protecting vital

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organs.
Appendicular Skeleton – Comprises the limbs, shoulder, and pelvic
girdles, enabling movement.

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Functions:
Protection – Shields organs (e.g., the skull protects the brain, ribs
protect the heart and lungs).
Support – Maintains body structure.
Movement – Joints and muscles allow motion.
Blood Cell Production – Bone marrow produces blood cells.
Mineral Storage – Stores calcium and phosphorus.
Joints, muscles, and ligaments work together to enable movement and
stability.
TP
Figure 14.13 Human Skeleton

MUSCLES AND JOINTS

NO

Muscles and joints work together to enable movement.

Smooth muscles are found in internal organs like the
stomach and intestines, where they contract involuntarily to
move substances such as food. Cardiac muscle, located only
in the heart, contracts continuously without tiring. Skeletal
muscles are attached to bones by tendons and control
voluntary movement. Flexor muscles, such as the biceps,
contract to bend a joint, while extensor muscles, like the
triceps, straighten it. Joints connect bones and allow
movement.
DO

Synovial joints have a fluid-filled space that lubricates and

absorbs shock. Fixed joints do not move and provide
stability, as seen in the skull. Hinge joints, like the elbow,
allow movement in one direction, whereas ball and socket
joints, found in the shoulder and hip, allow movement in
multiple directions. Ligaments hold joints together, and
cartilage prevents friction between bones.

Figure 14.14 Human Muscles (Male)

72 Coordination and Response / Coordination and Control +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
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COORDINATION AND RESPONSE IN PLANTS
Gravitropism: This is a plant's growth response to gravity. Roots show positive gravitropism by
growing downward, while shoots show negative gravitropism by growing upward, away from gravity.
TP
Phototropism: This is a plant’s response to light. Shoots exhibit positive phototropism, growing
towards light, while roots show negative phototropism, growing away from light.
NO

Role of Auxin in Shoot Growth:

Auxin is produced at the shoot
tip and spreads downwards.
It is unevenly distributed in
DO

response to light and gravity.

On the shaded side of a shoot,
auxin accumulates,
stimulating cell elongation
Figure 15.1 Photo and Geotropism
and causing the shoot to bend
towards light. Gravitropism and phototropism can be observed by
In roots, auxin slows growth, placing plants in controlled environments where light or
making the lower side grow gravity affects their growth. Shoots bend toward light
less, causing roots to bend (phototropism), and roots grow downward due to gravity
downward. (gravitropism).

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Coordination and response in plants 73

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Figure 16.1 A Human Fetus

CELL DIVISION AND GENETIC INFORMATION

Chromosomes and DNA: Chromosomes contain DNA, which carries genetic information in the form
of genes.
TP
HAPLOID AND DIPLOID NUCLEI:
A haploid nucleus has a single set of
chromosomes (e.g., gametes).
A diploid nucleus contains two sets of
chromosomes. In humans, diploid cells have 23
pairs of chromosomes.
NO

Figure 16.2 DNA & Chromosome

MITOSIS
Mitosis is nuclear division that produces
genetically identical cells while maintaining the
chromosome number.
It is essential for growth, tissue repair, cell
replacement, and asexual reproduction.
Stem cells are unspecialized cells that divide by
mitosis to produce cells that can specialize for
DO

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
different functions.

MEIOSIS & CANCER

Meiosis is a reduction division, halving the chromosome number
from diploid to haploid, resulting in genetically different
gametes.
Cancer and Cell Division:
Uncontrolled cell division leads to cancer, forming tumors
that can disrupt normal body functions.

74 Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
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Figure 16.3 Cutting

Figure 16.4 Grafting

TP
NO

Figure 16.5 Grafting

Figure 16.6 Grafting

DO

Figure 16.7 Grafting

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction 75

 Asexual reproduction is a process in which offspring are produced from a single parent, resulting
in genetically identical individuals. It occurs in organisms such as bacteria (binary fission), fungi
(spore formation), and plants (runners in strawberries). This method is advantageous because it is

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fast, requires no mate, and ensures survival in stable environments. However, the lack of genetic
variation makes species more vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes.
Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, involves the fusion of haploid nuclei during fertilization

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to form a diploid zygote, producing genetically different offspring. This process increases genetic
diversity, allowing for adaptation and evolution. However, it requires time and energy to find a
mate, and reproduction is generally slower compared to asexual reproduction.

TP
Figure 16.8 Spore Formation by a Fungus Figure 16.8 Runner formation by a Plant
NO

Figure 16.9 Binary Fission Figure 16.10 Fertilization

Feature Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Number of Parents One Two

Genetic Variation No (identical offspring) Yes (genetically different)

DO

Speed of Reproduction Fast Slow

Energy Requirement Low High (finding a mate, fertilization)

Examples Bacteria, fungi, plants Humans, animals, flowering plants

Adaptability Low (less variation, less adaptation) High (better adaptation)

Risk of Extinction High (due to environmental changes) Low (due to genetic diversity)

76 Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 Sexual reproduction in plants involves specialized structures that facilitate pollination and
fertilization. The sepals protect the developing flower bud, while the petals attract pollinators
with their bright colors and scent. The stamens, consisting of the anther (which produces pollen)

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and filament (which holds the anther), are the male reproductive parts. The carpel, composed of
the stigma (which receives pollen), style (which connects the stigma to the ovary), and ovary
(which contains ovules), is the female reproductive organ.

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POLLINATION
Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred
from the anther to the stigma. In self-
pollination, pollen from the same flower or
plant fertilizes the ovule, leading to less
genetic variation. Cross-pollination, where
pollen is transferred between different plants,
increases genetic diversity, improving
adaptability to environmental changes.
TP
TYPES OF POLLINATION
Insect-pollinated flowers have large, colorful
petals, scent, nectar, and sticky pollen to
attract insects, while wind-pollinated flowers
have small, dull-colored petals, feathery
stigmas, and lightweight pollen for easy
dispersal by wind.
NO

FERTILIZATION
After successful pollination, the pollen tube
grows down the style, allowing the male gamete
to fertilize the ovule. The fertilized ovule
develops into a seed, while the ovary
transforms into a fruit. The seed consists of the
embryo (which includes the radicle that
develops into the root and plumule that grows
into the shoot), cotyledons (which store
DO

nutrients), and the testa (a protective seed

coat).
Figure 3.2 Osmosis

Figure 16.11 SEM Images of Pollen grains

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction 77

 Plants disperse their seeds and fruits to colonize new areas and reduce competition for resources.
Wind-dispersed seeds are typically light, and small, and have structures like wings or parachutes
(e.g., dandelions and maple seeds) that allow them to be carried by the wind. Animal-dispersed
seeds often have fleshy, colorful, and sweet fruits that attract animals, which eat the fruit and

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later deposit the seeds in new locations through their waste (e.g., berries and apples). Some seeds
have hooks or spines that attach to animal fur for transport (e.g., burdock).
Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant. It requires three essential

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conditions:
1. Water – Activates enzymes and softens the testa (seed coat) for growth.
2. Oxygen – Needed for aerobic respiration to provide energy.
3. Suitable Temperature – Ensures enzyme activity for seed development.
During germination, water absorption triggers metabolic processes, and enzymes like amylase
break down stored starch into glucose. This glucose provides energy for cell division and growth,
allowing the radicle (embryonic root) to emerge first, followed by the plumule (embryonic shoot),
leading to the development of a new plant.
TP Self Dispersal Wind Dispersal Aniaml Dispersal
eg: Pea eg: Dandelion eg: Burdock
NO

Types of Germination
In epigeal germination, the
cotyledons emerge above the soil,
turn green, and aid in
photosynthesis until the first true
leaves develop, as seen in beans. In
DO

hypogeal germination, the

cotyledons remain underground,
and the seedling relies on stored
nutrients for growth, as in peas. The
type of germination depends on the
plant species and environmental
conditions. Epigeal germination
allows faster initial growth, while
hypogeal germination provides
better protection

78 Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 MALE BODY AFTER PUBERTY FEMALE BODY AFTER PUBERTY
Hair grows on face , chest , public region and armpits Hair grows in public region and armpits
Larynx enlarge and voice deepen Pelvis become broader, fat is deposit on hip and thigh

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Body become more muscular Breast develops
The penis, scrotum and prostate become larger Fallopian tube, uterus and vagina enlarge
sperm formation begins ovulation and menstruation begins

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The female reproductive system consists of external and internal structures. Externally, the vulva
includes the labia majora (outer lips) and labia minora (inner lips), which protect the vaginal and
urethral openings. The clitoris, a highly sensitive organ, plays a key role in sexual arousal. The
vaginal opening allows menstrual blood to exit and facilitates childbirth, sometimes partially
covered by the hymen. The urethral opening is where urine leaves the body.
Internally, the vagina is a muscular canal connecting the cervix to the external body. The cervix is
the lower part of the uterus, allowing sperm entry and menstrual blood exit. The uterus is a
muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus. The fallopian tubes
TP
transport eggs from the ovaries, where eggs and hormones are produced.
The male reproductive system consists of external and internal structures. Externally, the penis is
the organ for sexual intercourse and urination, consisting of the root (attached to the abdomen),
the shaft (main body), and the glans (sensitive tip, often covered by the foreskin unless
circumcised). The scrotum is a sac that holds and protects the testicles (testes) while regulating
their temperature for optimal sperm production.
Internally, the epididymis is a coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored. The vas deferens
carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra for ejaculation. The urethra runs through the
penis, serving as a passage for both urine and semen. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland
NO

produce fluids that nourish and transport sperm. The bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands)
secrete a clear fluid that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes acidity from urine.
DO

Figure 16.12 Male & Female Sex Organs

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction 79

 STRUCUTRE FUNCTION

Testis Epididymis Manufacture sperms , Store sperms in a viable but immobile state.

Sperm duct Contractions sweep sperms into urethra during ejaculation.

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Prostate Gland Secrete fluid which activates and nourishes sperms (secretions + sperm = semen).

Urethra Contractions expel semen from penis during ejaculation.

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Penis/Shaft Contains spongy tissue which when full of blood, causes erection

Most sensitive and terminal part of penis, repeated stimulation results in

Glans ejaculation and orgasm (reflex).

Foreskin Protects glans and is removed by circumcision.

TP
STRUCUTRE FUNCTION

Ovary Manufacture Eggs

Oviducts Site of fertilizations, convey fertilized egg

Uterus Protects and nourished embryo

NO

Cervix Produces water mocus which serve as lubricant for penis

DO

80 Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 The menstrual cycle is a monthly process in females that prepares the body for pregnancy,
typically lasting 28 days. It has four stages: the menstrual phase (Days 1-5), where the uterine
lining sheds; the follicular phase (Days 1-13), where FSH stimulates follicle growth and oestrogen
thickens the uterine lining; ovulation (Day 14), when an egg is released, marking the fertile phase;

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and the luteal phase (Days 15-28), where the corpus luteum produces progesterone to maintain
the uterine lining. If fertilization does not occur, progesterone levels drop, triggering
menstruation. The infertile phase occurs before and after ovulation. Factors such as hormonal

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imbalances, stress, poor diet, excessive exercise, illness, and medication can affect the cycle’s
regularity.

TP
NO
DO

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction 81

 Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell merges with an egg in the oviduct, forming a zygote. The
zygote undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo, which travels to the uterus and
implants into the uterine lining. The ovary continues producing hormones like progesterone and
estrogen, maintaining the pregnancy. The embryo is surrounded by the amnion, a fluid-filled sac

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that cushions and protects it. The placenta, connected via the umbilical cord, supplies oxygen and
nutrients while removing waste.

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TP
NO
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82 Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 Dietary Needs During Pregnancy
A balanced diet is essential during pregnancy to support fetal development and maternal health.
Folic acid prevents neural tube defects, while iron supports increased blood volume and prevents
anemia. Calcium strengthens the baby’s bones and teeth, and protein aids in tissue growth.

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Sufficient vitamins (A, C, D, and B-complex) boost immunity and overall development. Hydration is
also crucial for maintaining amniotic fluid and circulation.
Control and Prevention of STDs

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Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) can be prevented through safe sexual practices such as using
condoms and maintaining mutually monogamous relationships. Regular medical checkups and
early diagnosis help in timely treatment. Vaccination (e.g., for HPV and Hepatitis B) also reduces
the risk of infections. Avoiding the sharing of needles and ensuring blood transfusions are screened
further prevent transmission.
Advantages of Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding provides ideal nutrition for newborns, containing essential antibodies that protect
against infections. It promotes bonding between mother and baby, enhances digestive health, and
reduces the risk of allergies and diseases. Additionally, breastfeeding helps the mother recover
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faster by contracting the uterus and reducing postpartum bleeding. It is also economical and
convenient, requiring no sterilization or preparation.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which weakens the immune system by
attacking white blood cells (T-cells). This makes the body vulnerable to infections and diseases,
leading to life-threatening conditions. There is no cure for AIDS, but antiretroviral therapy (ART)
can slow disease progression and improve life expectancy.
Methods of Spread
HIV is primarily transmitted through unprotected sexual contact, contaminated blood
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transfusions, sharing needles, and from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding. It does
not spread through casual contact, such as shaking hands or sharing food. Safe practices,
awareness, and regular testing are key to controlling the spread of HIV/AIDS.
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Notes by Ghulam Rasool Development of organisms and continuity of life / Reproduction 83

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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GENETICS
Genetics is the scientific study of how traits are passed from parents to their offspring through
genetic information located on chromosomes. A trait is a unique structural or functional feature of
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an organism, such as the ability to roll one’s tongue.

VARIATION
Variation refers to the differences between individuals of the same species. These differences can
be in physical traits, such as height, eye color, or body shape, as well as in genetic makeup and
behavioral characteristics. Variation allows species to adapt to changing environments and plays a
crucial role in natural selection and evolution. It can be influenced by genetic factors,
environmental conditions, or a combination of both.
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Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism, while phenotype is the observable physical
or biochemical characteristics resulting from the interaction of the genotype with the
environment.
Genes exist in different forms called alleles, which can be either dominant or recessive. Dominant
alleles express their traits even if only one copy is present, whereas recessive alleles are only
expressed when two copies are inherited.
When an individual has two identical dominant alleles for a trait, they are homozygous dominant,
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and if they have two identical recessive alleles, they are homozygous recessive.
A heterozygous individual has one dominant and one recessive allele, and the dominant trait is
usually expressed.
Monohybrid inheritance involves the inheritance of a single gene, while dihybrid inheritance
considers two genes inherited together.
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can introduce new genetic variations, sometimes
leading to beneficial adaptations or harmful disorders.
In complete dominance, the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele.
However, in codominance, both alleles in a heterozygous individual are fully expressed, such as in
blood type AB, where both A and B alleles contribute equally to the phenotype.

84 Inheritance +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Variation in organisms can be classified into continuous and discontinuous variation. Continuous
variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, where traits show gradual
differences without distinct categories. Examples include body length, body mass, and skin color,
which are influenced by both genetic factors and environmental conditions, such as nutrition and
lifestyle.

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In contrast, discontinuous variation leads to a limited number of distinct phenotypes with no
intermediates. Examples include ABO blood groups, seed shape, and seed color in peas, where
individuals either have one phenotype or another, with no blending. Discontinuous variation is

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typically determined only by genes and is not affected by the environment.
Examples of continuous variation include height in humans, where individuals can be of any height
within a range, and milk yield in cows, which varies depending on genetics and diet. Examples of
discontinuous variation include whether a person has blood type A, B, AB, or O, and whether a pea
plant has round or wrinkled seeds.

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STRUCTURE OF DNA
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DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a molecule that carries

genetic information in all living organisms. It consists of
two strands coiled together in a double helix. Each
strand is made up of a chain of nucleotides, where each
nucleotide contains a base: Adenine (A), Thymine (T),
Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G). The two strands are held
together by bonds between complementary base pairs,
where A always pairs with T, and C always pairs with G.

Figure 17.1 Structure of DNA

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Inheritance 85

 A gene is a specific segment of DNA that codes for a protein. DNA controls cell function by
directing the production of proteins, including enzymes that regulate biochemical reactions. The
sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids needed to form a specific
protein. Since different sequences of amino acids result in different protein shapes, DNA

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ultimately influences the structure and function of cells.

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GENETIC VARIATIONS
Inheritance is the process by which genetic information is passed from one generation to the next
through DNA. This occurs when parents pass their genes to their offspring via reproductive cells
(gametes). Each individual inherits half of their genetic material from each parent, ensuring a mix
of traits. The combination of genes determines an organism’s physical and biological
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characteristics, known as its phenotype. Traits can be inherited in different ways, such as through
dominant and recessive alleles, and can follow simple patterns like monohybrid inheritance or
more complex ones involving multiple genes. Inheritance is responsible for the continuity of
species while also allowing for variation, which is essential for evolution and adaptation.
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86 Inheritance +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 MONOHYBRID CROSS
A monohybrid cross examines the inheritance of a
single gene with two alleles: one dominant (B) and
one recessive (b). In the Punnett square shown in
the image, a cross between two heterozygous Bb

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parents is illustrated. The possible genotypes of
their offspring are BB (homozygous dominant), Bb
(heterozygous), and bb (homozygous recessive).
Since B (blue flower) is dominant over b (white

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flower), both BB and Bb individuals will have blue
RESULTS OF CROSS flowers, while only bb individuals will have white
This results in a predicted phenotypic ratio of flowers.
3:1, meaning that approximately 75% of the
offspring will have blue flowers, while 25% will CODOMINANCE
have white flowers. The genotypic ratio is 1 BB Codominance occurs when both alleles in a
: 2 Bb : 1 bb. However, in real-life scenarios, the heterozygous individual are fully expressed,
observed ratios may not always match the without one being dominant over the other. A
expected 3:1 due to factors such as small classic example is the ABO blood group system,
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sample size, random fertilization, and which is controlled by three alleles: Iᴬ, Iᴮ, and Iᵒ.
environmental influences. In a smaller The Iᴬ and Iᴮ alleles are codominant, meaning that
population, chance variations may cause an individual with the IᴬIᴮ genotype will have AB
deviations from the expected ratio, but with a blood type, as both A and B antigens are equally
larger number of offspring, the observed ratio expressed on red blood cells. However, the Iᵒ
will be closer to 3:1. allele is recessive, so individuals with IᴬIᵒ or IᴮIᵒ
will have A or B blood types, respectively, while
those with IᵒIᵒ will have O blood type.
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SEX CHROMOSOMS
The determination of sex in humans is controlled
by the sex chromosomes. Humans have 46
chromosomes in total, arranged in 23 pairs. Of
these, 22 pairs are autosomes, which are the same
in both males and females, while the 23rd pair
consists of the sex chromosomes (XX or XY), which
determine biological sex.
Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY),
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while females have two X chromosomes (XX).

During fertilization, the mother's egg always
contributes an X chromosome, while the father's
sperm can carry either an X or a Y chromosome. If
a sperm carrying an X chromosome fertilizes the
egg, the offspring will be female (XX), and if a
sperm carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the egg,
the offspring will be male (XY). The Y chromosome
contains the SRY gene, which triggers the
development of male reproductive structures,
Figure 17.2 Female (XX) and Male (XY) Chromosomes making it the key factor in determining male sex.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Inheritance 87

 A gene mutation is a random change in the base sequence of DNA, which can affect the function of
a gene. One example is sickle cell anaemia, a genetic disorder caused by a single base substitution
in the gene that codes for haemoglobin. This mutation changes the shape of red blood cells from
their normal round shape to a sickle or crescent shape, which makes it difficult for them to
transport oxygen efficiently. These abnormal cells can block blood vessels, leading to pain, fatigue,

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and other health complications.
Figure 17.3 Sickle
Cell Anemia

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Figure 3.2 Osmosis

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A chromosome mutation involves a change in the
number or structure of chromosomes, which can lead to
genetic disorders. Down’s syndrome is an example of a
chromosome number mutation, where individuals have
47 chromosomes instead of the normal 46. This occurs
due to trisomy 21, meaning they have an extra copy of
chromosome 21. It results in developmental delays,
intellectual disability, and characteristic physical
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features.

FACTOR AFFECTING MUTATION

Several factors contribute to genetic variation in populations, including mutation, meiosis,
random mating, and random fertilisation. Mutation introduces new genetic changes, while
meiosis creates variation through crossing over and independent assortment of chromosomes.
Random mating and fertilisation further increase genetic diversity by combining different
parental genes in unpredictable ways.
Certain environmental factors, such as ionising radiation (e.g., X-rays, gamma rays) and harmful
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chemicals (e.g., tobacco smoke, pesticides, and industrial pollutants), can increase the rate of
mutation, potentially leading to genetic disorders or even cancer.

88 Inheritance +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Natural selection is the process by which individuals with traits that improve survival or
reproduction are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation.
(a) Variation within populations – Individuals in a species differ due to genetic variation from
mutations, meiosis, and random fertilisation. Some traits, like disease resistance or better

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camouflage, provide an advantage.
(b) Production of many offspring – Organisms produce more offspring than can survive, ensuring
some reach maturity and reproduce despite environmental challenges.
(c) Struggle for survival and competition – Limited resources like food, water, and mates lead to

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competition. Predators, diseases, and environmental changes further impact survival.
(d) Survival of the fittest – Individuals with beneficial traits (e.g., speed, cold resistance, better
food-finding ability) have a higher chance of surviving and reproducing, while less adapted ones
may die before reproducing.
(e) Passing on advantageous alleles – Successful individuals pass on their beneficial traits to
offspring, increasing their frequency in the population. Over generations, this leads to gradual
evolution, ensuring species adapt to their environment.
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Over time, populations change as a result of natural selection. Individuals with traits that help
them survive and reproduce pass these traits to their offspring. Over many generations, beneficial
traits become more common, while less useful traits disappear. This gradual change allows species
to adapt to new environments and improves their chances of survival.
A clear example of natural selection is antibiotic-resistant bacteria, such as MRSA (Methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus). When bacteria are exposed to antibiotics, most die, but some
may have a genetic mutation that makes them resistant. These resistant bacteria survive,
reproduce, and pass on their resistance genes. Over time, entire bacterial populations become
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resistant, making infections harder to treat.

Artificial selection (selective breeding) is when humans choose plants or animals with desirable
traits and breed them to enhance these traits in future generations. For example, farmers select
cows that produce more milk or crops with higher yields. These selected individuals are bred, and
their best offspring are chosen for further breeding. This process, repeated over many generations,
leads to populations with improved characteristics.
Artificial selection plays a major role in agriculture and livestock farming. Farmers use selective
breeding to develop high-yield crops, disease-resistant plants, and fast-growing animals. For
example, wheat plants with larger grains are bred to improve harvests, and dairy cows that
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produce more milk are selectively bred for better milk production. This method has significantly
boosted food production and economic benefits.
Inbreeding and outbreeding are two approaches to selective breeding. Inbreeding involves mating
closely related individuals to preserve desired traits. While this can strengthen certain
characteristics, it also increases the risk of genetic disorders. Outbreeding, on the other hand,
involves breeding unrelated individuals to introduce genetic diversity, resulting in healthier and
more adaptable offspring. Farmers often use outbreeding to prevent inherited diseases and
improve overall population resilience.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Inheritance 89

 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms to develop useful products, particularly in industries
like food production, medicine, and environmental management.
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Yeast plays a crucial role in bread and ethanol production. In bread-making, yeast ferments sugars,
producing carbon dioxide, which makes the dough rise. In ethanol production, yeast ferments
sugars in anaerobic conditions, converting them into alcohol, used in beverages and biofuels.
Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification due to their rapid reproduction and
ability to produce complex molecules. They have no ethical concerns regarding manipulation,
making them ideal for research and industry. Additionally, plasmids, small circular DNA, allow easy
insertion of desired genes for genetic engineering.
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Enzymes are widely used in biotechnology. Biological washing powders contain enzymes that break
down stains. Pectinase is used in fruit juice production to break down plant cell walls, increasing
juice yield. Lactase is used to produce lactose-free milk by breaking down lactose, making it
digestible for lactose-intolerant individuals.
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Figure 18.1 Process of Genetic Engineering

90 Biotechnology and genetic modification +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool

 Fermenters enable large-scale production of useful products by bacteria and fungi. Key conditions
such as temperature, pH, oxygen levels, nutrient supply, and waste removal must be carefully
controlled to optimize growth and product yield.

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MAIN FEATURES OF FERMENTERS
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Fermenters are specialized vessels used for the large-scale cultivation of microorganisms like
bacteria and fungi to produce useful products such as antibiotics, enzymes, and biofuels. They are
designed to provide optimal conditions for microbial growth by carefully controlling temperature,
pH, oxygen supply, and nutrient levels. A cooling system regulates temperature to prevent
overheating from microbial activity, while a pH monitoring system ensures the environment
remains suitable for enzyme function. Oxygen is supplied through an air sparger, essential for
aerobic microbes, and continuous stirring (or agitation) ensures even distribution of nutrients and
gases. A sterile environment is maintained using filters and aseptic techniques to prevent
contamination. Additionally, waste products are removed efficiently to avoid toxic buildup that
could hinder microbial growth. These features make fermenters highly efficient for producing
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antibiotics, alcohol, and food-related products like yogurt and cheese.

MALTING & PASTEURIZATION

In beer production, barley grains rich in starch undergo malting, where they are moistened and
allowed to germinate, producing simple sugars for yeast fermentation and alcohol production. In
yogurt production, pasteurized milk is inoculated with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus; the latter creates an anaerobic environment, while the former ferments lactose into
lactic acid, curdling milk proteins to form yogurt, which can be flavored with fruit. In cheese
production, lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose to acidify the milk, leading to coagulation of
casein into curds that are cut, heated, pressed, and aged for desired flavors.

Notes by Ghulam Rasool Biotechnology and genetic modification 91

 Penicillin, an antibiotic produced by the fungus Penicillium, is commercially produced using large
fermenters. The fungus is grown in a carefully controlled environment with optimal temperature,
pH, and oxygen levels. Initially, it undergoes a growth phase, after which penicillin production
begins. The antibiotic is then extracted, purified, and formulated into medicines to treat bacterial

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infections.
Insulin, a hormone essential for regulating blood sugar, is now produced through genetic
modification. The human insulin gene is inserted into bacteria, usually Escherichia coli, which then
multiply in fermenters, producing insulin in large quantities. The insulin is extracted, purified, and

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used to treat diabetes. This method ensures a reliable, ethical, and cost-effective supply of insulin
compared to previous methods using animal pancreas extracts

PRODUCTION OF SINGLE-CELL PROTEINS (SCP) AND MYCOPROTEIN

Single-cell proteins (SCP) are derived from microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae.
These microorganisms are cultured in fermenters, where they rapidly grow and produce high-
protein biomass. SCP serves as an alternative protein source for animal feed and human
consumption, especially in regions facing food shortages.
Mycoprotein, such as Quorn, is produced using the fungus Fusarium venenatum. The fungus is
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grown in fermenters using glucose as a nutrient source. After harvesting, it is processed to
improve texture and flavor, making it a popular meat substitute.

MOSQUITOES AS VECTORS
Mosquitoes act as vectors, transmitting diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika virus. When an
infected mosquito bites a person, it injects disease-causing pathogens into the bloodstream.
Female Anopheles mosquitoes spread malaria by carrying Plasmodium parasites, while Aedes
mosquitoes transmit viruses like dengue and Zika.
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Mosquito-borne diseases are prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions due to warm, humid
conditions that favor mosquito breeding. Controlling mosquito populations through insecticides,
eliminating stagnant water, and using mosquito nets helps reduce disease transmission.
Additionally, genetic modification is being explored to create sterile or disease-resistant
mosquitoes, offering potential long-term solutions to mosquito-borne illnesses.

PROS & CONS OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Genetic modification in crop plants involves inserting specific genes to enhance their traits. For
herbicide resistance, genes are introduced to enable crops to survive herbicide application,
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allowing farmers to control weeds without harming the crops. To protect against insect pests,
crops like Bt maize and Bt cotton are engineered with a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis, which
produces a toxin that kills harmful insects. Genetic modification is also used to enhance
nutritional content, such as inserting genes in rice to produce beta-carotene, which the body
converts into vitamin A, helping to combat vitamin A deficiency.
The advantages of genetic modification in crops include increased yield, reduced need for
chemical pesticides and herbicides, improved nutritional value, and resistance to environmental
stresses like drought or disease. However, potential risks include the possibility of unintended
environmental impacts, such as harm to beneficial insects or the transfer of modified genes to
wild plants. There are also concerns about long-term health effects, loss of biodiversity, and
ethical issues related to controlling food production through genetic patents.

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 IGCSE O Levels Ghulam Rasool

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Energy flow
Nutrient Cycle

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Ecosystems and biodiversity
Effects of humans on ecosystems
Conservation

ENERGY FLOW
The Sun is the primary source of energy for most biological systems. Plants, algae, and some
bacteria use sunlight for photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy stored in
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glucose. This process forms the foundation of nearly all food chains, making most life forms directly
or indirectly dependent on photosynthesis for survival.
FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS:
Energy flows through ecosystems in a food chain or food web. Producers (plants) convert solar
energy into chemical energy, which is transferred to primary consumers (herbivores) when they
feed on plants. Secondary and tertiary consumers (carnivores and omnivores) gain energy by
eating other animals. However, at each trophic level, a significant amount of energy is lost as heat
through respiration, movement, and waste. Only about 10% of the energy is passed to the next
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level, limiting the number of organisms in higher trophic levels.

Eventually, all energy is transferred to the environment as heat. Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
break down dead organisms, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem, ensuring the continuous
flow of energy and matter. This process supports food production, population balance, and
ecosystem stability.
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Notes by Ghulam Rasool Biotechnology and genetic modification 93

 Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient because a large portion of the energy is lost at
each stage. Only about 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next, while the rest is
lost as heat through respiration, movement, and waste. This energy loss limits the number of
trophic levels in a food chain, as there is not enough energy to support many levels. As a result,

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most food chains have fewer than five trophic levels, since higher levels would receive too little
energy to sustain large populations.
It is more energy efficient for humans to consume crop plants directly rather than eating livestock
that have been fed on crops. When crops are eaten by livestock, a significant amount of energy is

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lost through respiration and waste before humans consume the meat. By eating plants directly,
humans gain more energy from the original source, making plant-based diets more efficient in
terms of energy transfer and food production.

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94 Organism and Their Environment / Influence of Humans on Ecosystems +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
 The carbon cycle moves carbon through the environment. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide
from the air as plants convert it into organic compounds. Respiration by plants, animals, and
decomposers releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Feeding transfers carbon through
food chains as animals consume plants and other organisms. Decomposition breaks down dead

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organisms, returning carbon to the soil and air. Over millions of years, dead organic matter can
form fossil fuels like coal and oil. Combustion of these fuels releases stored carbon back into the
atmosphere, completing the cycle.\

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NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle makes nitrogen available for
plants and animals. Decomposers break down
proteins into ammonium ions, which are
converted into nitrates through nitrification.
Plants absorb nitrates to produce proteins,
which animals obtain by feeding. Nitrogen
fixation by bacteria and lightning converts
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Denitrification returns nitrogen to the
atmosphere. Fungi and bacteria decompose
organic matter, recycling nutrients.
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Notes by Ghulam Rasool Biotechnology and genetic modification 95

 A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time. A
community consists of all the populations of different species in an ecosystem. An ecosystem
includes the community of organisms and their environment, interacting as a unit. Biodiversity
refers to the variety of different species in an area. Population growth is influenced by factors such

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as food supply, competition, predation, and disease. The rapid growth of the human population is
increasing the demand for global resources, leading to environmental challenges.

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Deforestation is caused by human activities such as agriculture, logging, and urban expansion. It
leads to loss of biodiversity, as habitats are destroyed, causing species extinction. The removal of
trees also results in soil erosion, making land infertile and increasing the risk of flooding.
Additionally, deforestation raises carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, contributing to climate
change.
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Humans impact the environment by over-harvesting plants and animals, which can lead to
population decline and disrupt ecosystems. The introduction of non-native species can
outcompete native species, leading to biodiversity loss and ecological imbalance.
Water pollution from untreated sewage and fertilizers causes eutrophication, where excess nitrates
lead to rapid plant growth. When these plants die, decomposers break them down using oxygen,
reducing dissolved oxygen levels and causing aquatic organisms to die.
Air pollution from greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane traps heat in the atmosphere,
leading to global warming, rising sea levels, and extreme weather.
Chemical pollution from insecticides and herbicides harms non-target species and can enter the
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food chain. Non-biodegradable plastics pollute land and water, harming wildlife through ingestion
and entanglement, and take centuries to break down.

CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

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Conserving species is essential for maintaining biodiversity, preventing extinction, and protecting
fragile ecosystems. Forest conservation involves education, setting up protected areas, enforcing
logging quotas, and replanting trees to ensure sustainability. Similarly, fish stocks can be
preserved through public awareness, seasonal fishing bans, marine reserves, regulated net sizes,
fishing quotas, and continuous monitoring. A sustainable resource is one that is replenished at the
same rate it is consumed, preventing depletion and ensuring long-term availability for future
generations.

96 Organism and Their Environment / Influence of Humans on Ecosystems +92-3221424146 Notes by Ghulam Rasool
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