Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory 63fcd53c82e726483f1cfcda 877

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
1.3. Features of Organisms

1. Characteristics and
The Five Kingdoms
Classification of Living Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
Organisms organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
MRS GREN saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
cellulose, spread by spreading spores in moist/dark/warm
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an
environments. Most have hyphae and mycelium in
organism causing a change of position or place
structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex:
metabolism
E.coli, Salmonella.
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a
the internal or external environment
nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
seaweed.
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same
kind of organism Guidance: For this section, learn the five
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of kingdoms' main features.
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth, Main Features of All Animals:
and development
Multicellular
It contains a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts
1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification Only feed on organic substances made by other living
System things
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they 1.4. Vertebrates
share.
Species are a group of organisms which can reproduce to Types of Vertebrates Features
produce fertile offspring. Fur on the skin, External ears
Sequence of classification: Kingdom → Phylum → Classes
Mammals (pinna), Internal fertilisation,
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species. Mammary Glands
Funny acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually four
Good Soup Reptiles legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft
Shelled Eggs
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an Wet scales, Streamlined body
internationally agreed system in which an organism's
Fish shape, External fertilisation, and
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the soft eggs
genus and species.
Smooth, moist skin, External
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,
fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, &
and the species are not. Amphibians
Lungs can live on land and water.
The classification of organisms helps show the
Most have four legs.
evolutionary relationships between them.
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help Feathers on the body and scales on
classify organisms. legs, Constant internal body
Birds
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely the two temperature, Hard eggs, Internal
organisms are related. fertilisation, birth through eggs
Dichotomous keys use visible features to classify
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to Syllabus 1.3.3: You must be able to classify
another option until the organism is narrowed down to its organisms using the features identified above
genus and species.
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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
1.5. Arthropods 2. Organisation of the

Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:
Organism
1. Exoskeleton 2.1. Cell Structure
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body All living things are made of cells.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
Type of Arthropod Number of Legs
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have:
Insects 6 Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of cells
Arachnids 8 Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
Crustaceans >10 Nucleus: contains DNA (genetic material) and controls
Myriapods >20 the cell
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
1.6. Classification of Plants Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
looks rough under the microscope.
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
and flowering plants. Plant cells especially also have:
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Ferns:
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
Do not produce flowers/seeds
strengthens the cell
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Reproduce by spores
energy for photosynthesis
Flowering plants:
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
above.
Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Parallel veins Branching veins
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves
The Number of Petals is a The Number of Petals is a
Multiple of 3 Multiple of 4 or 5
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles
Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and

dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
Choice Questions Prokaryotes (Bacteria)
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a

1.7. Viruses true nucleus.
Viruses are not part of any classification system due to A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
not being considered living things. peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
They do not carry out the seven life processes for plasmids.
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
pathways to make multiple copies of themselves. chromosome of DNA.
Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the cytoplasm
DNA) inside a protein coat. with extra genes outside the chromosomal DNA.
Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
ribosomes)
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Other Forms in Magnification Formula
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification

Image size = magnification x actual size
Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
1cm = 10mm
1mm = 1000μm
1μm = 0.001mm
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
Tip: This comes out frequently in all three

Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify the papers.
cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells
3. Movement In and Out of
2.2. Levels of Organisation Cells
The division of existing cells produces new cells.
3.1. Diffusion
Key Terms
Diffusion: Net movement of particles from a region of their
Cells: Building Blocks of Life
higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration
Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
(i.e., down a concentration gradient) as a result of their
together to perform a shared function
random movement.
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions.
Specialised Cells
Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.
Specialised Cells Specific Function Location of Cell

Movement of
Respiratory Tract,
mucus in the
Ciliated cells Fallopian Tube,
trachea and
Testes
bronchi
Root Hair cells Absorption Roots Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of the
Palisade Mesophyll random movement of molecules and ions.
Photosynthesis Leaf Cells
cell The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
Conduction of Everywhere in an it, molecules that are needed for life, for example, glucose
Neurones
electrical impulses organism and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to get to the
Transport of Everywhere in an places they are required.
Red Blood cells Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
oxygen organism
through the cell membrane.
Sperm and Egg
In their respective
cells/ovum For reproduction Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)
gonads
(gametes)
Concentration gradient
Temperature
2.3. Magnification Surface area to volume ratio
Distance
The general formula is represented in this way:
M agnification =
size of drawing
=
image
=
I 3.2. Osmosis
size of specimen actual A

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The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid

with digestion, excretion, and transport.
Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region of

higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane.
3.3. Active Transport

Active Transport: Movement of particles through a cell
Conc. of Solute Conc. of Solute membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
Condition of the Cell
(In-Cell) (Outside-Cell) concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient),
Cell Shrinks using energy from respiration.
Low High
(Flaccid/Hypertonic)
Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used during
Same Same No Change (Isotonic)
active transport.
High Low Turgid/Hypotonic
In Animals
Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it

to burst (plasmolysis) because it has too much water and
no cell wall.
In Plants
Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the

cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole It is embedded in the cell membrane to pick up specific
gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from the molecules and take them through the cell membrane
cell wall. against their concentration gradient.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall. optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
hair cells.
4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Dialysis Tubing Experiment Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
(CHO)
Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, partially Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
permeable membrane made from cellulose. and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules Smaller molecules Larger molecules
(such as glucose and water) to pass through by Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
diffusion and osmosis. Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins
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Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled

4.2. Food Tests
DNA
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
Positive Negative
Test for: Solution Process Each strand contains chemicals called Bases
Result Result
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
Add Benedict The bases always pair up in the same way:
Reducing Benedict solution into a A and T
Brick Red Blue
Sugars Solution beaker and Heat C and G
Up to 70-80°C You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
Add Iodine for this syllabus.
Iodine
Starch solution to the Blue-Black Brown
Solution
specimen
Add Biuret
5. Enzymes
Biuret
Protein solution to the Purple/Violet Blue
Solution
sample 5.1. Enzymes
Add ethanol to
the sample and Catalyst: A substance which increases the reaction rate
Cloudy
Fats Ethanol shake with an N/A and causes no changes in the reaction.
Emulsion
equal volume of Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
water. chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Add DCPIP Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic
Vitamin C DCPIP solution to the Colourless Blue reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
sample Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
reaction to take place.
It is essential in all living organisms regarding the reaction
rate necessary to sustain life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
Lock and Key Model
4.3. Structure of a DNA

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react,
Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA complementary to the active site.
DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid. Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction
Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different

shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences may
be deferred in their function.
5.2. Temperature on Enzymes

Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature
at which they work best, giving the fastest reaction ≈ at
37°C in animals & human bodies.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
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Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to glucose used in respiration to provide energy
bind to active sites. sucrose for transport in the phloem
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape and 6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll
no longer binding with a substrate.
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly. leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
5.3. pH on Enzymes about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH. Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
alkaline. by ethanol.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH. Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken, chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs. The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions. will remain brown.
5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme

Activity
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
6.3. Investigation of Light

NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology Paper
2.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours

6. Plant Nutrition Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch
6.1. Photosynthesis +ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain brown
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
light+chlorophyll
C arbonDioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
light+cholorophyll
6C O2 + 6H2 O
+C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of

a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and
converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates
6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
and their subsequent storage.
Take two de-starched potted plants.
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.
B.
Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It

Photosynthesis produces C O2 .
Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

starch as an energy store C O2 .
cellulose to build cell walls
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Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight

for at least 6 hours
Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the
top of the leaf
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell
test
Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and
Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon dioxide contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
concentration Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells that create air
spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place; do
not contain many chloroplasts
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved
minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose
Phloem: a vessel that transports nutrients
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to
prevent water loss and open to letting gases in and out.
When guard cells lose water, the stoma closes (at night),
while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water &
swell (during the day).
Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide Guard Cells: control the opening and closing of stomata
concentration, and yellow the highest.
6.5. Limiting Factors

Limiting Factors: something present in the environment in
such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Light Intensity
As the amount of light
increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases (a-
b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not
Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain how
affect the rate (c)
the structures above adapt leaves for
The limiting factor is now photosynthesis
carbon dioxide or
temperature
6.7. Mineral Requirements
6.6. Leaf Structure Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
and are thin. Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: plant lacks
slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow
Tip! You need to know the purpose of these

required nutrients.
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Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into

7. Human Nutrition smaller pieces without chemical change.
It increases the surface area of food for the action of
enzymes in chemical digestion.
7.1. Diet
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of molecules into small, soluble molecules.
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
to maintain good health and metabolism. into the blood
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle: Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body
Children Below 12: Require more calcium as faeces
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally, require more energy Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
ingestion takes place
7.2. Nutrition Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Nutrients Uses Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
Carbohydrates Energy (circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
Source of energy, building materials, from mouth to stomach
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy, Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in acidic
making hormones conditions) to break down proteins into amino acids and
Energy, building materials, enzymes, kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also have elastic
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material walls.
(muscle), hormones, antibodies Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases
Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Development and maintenance of Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
Calcium
strong bones and teeth down starch.
Iron Making haemoglobin Jejunum: Contains many microvilli, majority of the
Provides bulk for faeces, helps primary nutrient absorption happens here.
Fibre (Roughage) Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
peristalsis
is where absorption also takes place.
Chemical reactions, solvent for
Water Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
transport
works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
7.3. Deficiencies molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes and other toxins.
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
and teeth Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
7.4. Digestive System Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to
be known.
Process of Digestion 7.5. Teeth

Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
body through the mouth. increase the surface area of food.
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Incisors Canines Premolars Molars 7.7. Absorption and Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood
Blunt for
Blunt chewing
Rectangular chewing and
Sharp-pointed and grinding.
shape, sharp grinding, one
for piercing Two or three
for cutting and or two roots,
and tearing roots, ridges
biting cusps/bumps
at the end
at the end
Structure of Tooth
Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums
The small intestine is the region for absorption of

digested food.
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient diffusion
calcium salts of nutrients.
Cement: helps to anchor tooth A large surface area means more absorption of nutrients
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and can happen.
nerve endings that detect pain. Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
collagen fibres concentration gradient.
Nerves Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
Blood vessels some from the colon (large intestine).
7.6. Chemical Digestion 8. Transport in Plants

Chemical Digestion: Enzymes break down large insoluble
substances, such as proteins, into smaller soluble 8.1. Xylem and Phloem
substances, like amino acids, so that they can be absorbed.
Functions of Xylem
Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced
in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland) transport water and mineral ions, and support the plant’s
Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the overall structure.
membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.
Functions of Phloem
Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and then
into amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach, and transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the
trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali). source (and vice versa)
Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
produced by the pancreas. Adaptations of Xylem
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms 1. thick walls with lignin (Information about lignification
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity are not required)
Kills pathogens 2. no cell contents
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid mixture 3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from long, continuous tube
the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.
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air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.
Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
dicotyledonous plants
8.2. Water Uptake Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
Root Hair Cells diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between
They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area, mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata.
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis and Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
ions by active transport. transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.
the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis Wilting
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm. Wilting: occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake – cells
Then, it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly, become flaccid, and tissues become limp.
the mesophyll cells.
Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration
Investigate the Pathway of Water through the
Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules
Above-Ground Parts of a Plant increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence
colouring) added.
increasing the transpiration rate
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
as the dyed water.
steep concentration gradient
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing that
it is being carried in specific vessels through the stem - 8.4. Translocation
a.k.a xylem vessels.
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
8.3. Transpiration storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the Translocation in different seasons:
Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.
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Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the

right ventricle
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate.
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the lungs
to the left atrium
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the
left ventricle
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via
the aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent backflow
of blood
9. Transport in Animals IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right
Ventricle < Left Ventricle
9.1. Circulatory Systems
9.3. Functioning of the Heart
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins) The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows
to ensure a one-way flow of blood. into the right atrium via the vena cava.
Single Circulation System (fish): Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is
Blood flows through the heart once every complete pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the right
circuit (No Septum) ventricle.
Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle) The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve,
Released in body cells, then back to the heart which prevents blood from flowing backwards into the
Double Circulation System: heart.
Four heart chambers The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete capillaries, passing the alveoli.
circuit Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and pulmonary vein
back to the heart It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the left
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues ventricle
around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood from
flowing back down into the heart
9.2. Heart Example Past Year Question
The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
circuit. (0610/42/F/M/23)
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)

pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax
9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
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Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the liver
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more back to the heart
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle. The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
from the gut to the liver
9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood

supply to the heart muscle.
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
genetic predisposition, age and sex
This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food Arterioles and Venules
(a good diet) and exercising regularly
9.6. Blood Vessels

Vessel Function Structure
Elastic tissue walls
stretch and relax as
blood is forced out;
Transport high-pressure causes pulse
Arteries The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
arterioles
high pressure
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
Small lumen maintains venules
(high) blood pressure.
Valves prevent backflow 9.7. Blood
of blood.
Blood is at low pressure, Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
but nearby muscles oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
Transport low pressure
Veins squeeze veins and help White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
blood to the heart
push blood to the heart Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting
Large and wide lumen to Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
reduce resistance to the hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
flow of blood dissolved substances)
One cell thick wall for Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify red
easy diffusion and white blood cells in photomicrographs and
Highly branched; large diagrams
Allow substances to surface area
Capillaries
diffuse into cells Capillary beds
constantly supplied with
fresh blood, so diffusion
occurs
Major Blood Vessels White Blood Cells
Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins Phagocytes have
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins Lymphocytes have a circular
lobed/irregular C-shaped
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein nucleus and are found in
nuclei and vesicles containing
blood
The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
digestive enzymes.
heart to the liver
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Phagocyte Lymphocyte hygienic food preparation

Phagocytosis: engulfs good personal hygiene
Large nucleus/small waste disposal
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
cytoplasm, and they produce sewage treatment
the vacuole, enzymes digest
antibodies,
bacteria.
Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins 10.3. Active and Passive Immunity
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens,
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens, directly destroying or
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes. marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.
The surface of the pathogen contains antigens, and they

Blood Clotting have specific shapes.
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out specific antigens.
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form that are exactly the right shape to fit into antigens outside
a scab.
the pathogen.
Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
10. Diseases and Immunity of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to
engulf.
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
10.1. Pathogens lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
and divide rapidly by mitosis.
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism. These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating
Transmissible Disease: a disease in which the pathogen active immunity.
can be passed from one host to another.
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be Active Immunity
transmitted either:
Direct Contact: the pathogen is passed directly from Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
one host to another through blood, body fluids, semen, production in the body.
etc.
Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or
Indirect Contact: the pathogen leaves the host and is
by vaccination.
carried in some way to another e.g., contaminated
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
surfaces/food, from animals, from air
pathogens.
Having a population vaccinated against a particular
10.2. Body Defences disease helps to achieve herd immunity.
Process of Vaccination:
The human body has many natural defences against weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the
pathogens. body
the antigens stimulate an immune response by
Mechanical barriers:
lymphocytes, which produce antibodies
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
memory cells are produced that give long-term
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
immunity
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
Passive Immunity
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food
Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen by
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
antibodies acquired from another individual.
defences are destroyed by white blood cells:
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity
by phagocytosis Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
pathogen and vaccination against disease helps which are passed on to her baby.
antibodies to be made very quickly Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases against any diseases.
Some diseases are caused by the immune system
a clean water supply targeting and destroying body cells.
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10.4. Cholera Composition of Breathing Dry Air
Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces Inspired Air Expired Air

To cure this, is oral rehydration therapy and antibiotics. Oxygen 21% 16%
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio chlorae”, Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
causing cholera. Nitrogen 78% 78%
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in
Water Vapour Lower Higher
contaminated water.
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result =
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing
lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing turns cloudy
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing
11. Gas Exchange in Humans Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
respiration - and higher CO2 concentration in the blood.
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
spirogram.
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the
Properties Reasons
change in breathing volume and rate helps keep CO2
Short distance to diffuse (one cell
Thin surface concentration and pH safe.
thick)
Many molecules can diffuse at
Large surface area
once/More alveoli
11.4. Breathing
Regular fresh air supplies keep up
Inspiration Expiration
Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen
External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles
and carbon dioxide.
contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls
Gases can be carried to/from the
Good blood supply upwards and outwards downwards and inwards
cells that need/produce them
Diaphragm muscles contract Diaphragm muscles relax –
– the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
11.2. Structure of the Lungs downwards, and the volume the volume of the thorax
of the thorax increases decreases
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles,
Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure <
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax
capillaries
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs
Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and expand
and contract (and efficient breathing).
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall. sneezing.
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs. and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
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Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat back

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration
and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the
lungs into the mouth.
Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break down
nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen.
12. Respiration In muscles (vigorous exercise):
Glucose → Lactic Acid
12.1. Respiration In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + C arbon Dioxide
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient C 6 H12 O6 → 2C 2 H5 OH + 2C O2

molecules in living cells to release energy. Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:

Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle molecule that aerobic respiration would
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
Produces poisonous lactic acid
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
Lactic Acid:
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to exercise
speed up the reaction.
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.
An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
Oxygen Debt is removed by:
the effect of temperature on yeast cells.
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically,
in the blood from the muscles to the liver
though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
is being investigated.
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the
suspension.
The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless, 12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and
the faster the respiration rate. Anaerobic Respiration
IV: Effect of Temperature
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for
Aerobic Anaerobic
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless)
Oxygen Needed Not needed
Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Amount of Energy
More Less
Released
13. Excretion in Humans

Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that
energy is released; it is NEVER made, 13.1. Excretion
produced, or created.
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
12.2. Aerobic Respiration including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.
Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,
excess water and ions (kidney).
Glucose + Oxygen → C arbonDioxide + Water The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
urea.
C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2 + 6H2 O

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Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules and

13.2. Function of Liver
leaves wastes behind
The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
converting them to proteins. 13.4. Structure and Function of the
Nephron
1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the

glomerulus. Water, urea, salts, and glucose are forced
into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and large
Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of proteins cannot pass through.
amino acids to form urea. 2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of the
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by body cells salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but not
salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the nephron
13.3. Function of Kidney by osmosis because of the low water potential of the
medulla tissue fluid.
Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption 4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into
of glucose and some salts the collecting duct, forming urine.
14. Coordination and

Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises nerves
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
functions.
Electrical impulses travel through the neurones.
The nervous system helps with the coordination and
regulation of body functions.
14.2. Types of Neurones

Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
nerve cells called neurones
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules Axons: Ensure less time is wasted when the impulse is
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder transferred from one neurone to another
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts Dendrities: Extensions which form a network for easy
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside. communication.
Bladder: stores urine
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
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Motor Neurone The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or the The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
glands) the response
Sensory Neurone
Carry impulses from the sense organs to the CNS.

14.4. Synapse
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
Relay Neurone
The middleman inside the CNS connects sensory and

motor neurones.
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction

only.
Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of
14.3. Simple Reflex Arc neurones
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles
Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and
(vesicles, each containing a chemical called
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors
neurotransmitter)
(muscles and glands). When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal membrane and empty their content into the synaptic cleft.
surface The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
neurone and a motor neurone. of the relay neurone.
The gap between neurones is called a synapse. This can happen because the neurotransmitter
How the simple reflex arc works: molecules' shape complements the receptor shape.
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse) 14.5. Sense Organs
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the receptor
to the CNS (spinal cord) Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals.
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
cord
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Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
different colours (Rods and cones)
Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain
Pupil: A hole which allows light to enter
14.6. Pupil Reflex

Exemplar Past Year Question
Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if the

suspensory ligaments become permanently overstretched.
Adjusting for high and low light intensity (0610/42/F/M/23)
An involuntary response
1. ciliary muscles relax
Low Light High Light 2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
Intensity Intensity 3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged
Radial Muscles Contract Relax
Circular Muscles Relax Contract
Pupil Size Wide Narrow
14.8. Rods and Cones
Amount of Light
More Less Rods Cones
Entering
Provide low detail, black &
Provide detailed, coloured
white images, suitable for
images; they work in high light
14.7. Accommodation seeing in low-intensity light (at
intensity.
night).
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.
Packed most tightly around
Most tightly packed at the
The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called the edge of the retina, so you
retina's centre, objects are
accommodation can see things most clearly
seen most clearly when
The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when the when not looking directly at
directly looking at them.
suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight or loose them.
The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles brings
about the changes Fovea:
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed
Near Object Distant Object most closely together
Ciliary muscles Contract Relax Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object
Suspensory Ligaments Slack Tighten
Distribution of Rods and Cones
Lens Short and fat Long and thin
More rod cells than cone cells
A number of cone cells peaked in the middle, showing
the location of the fovea. No rod cells are present in
the peak.
No rod and cone cells at the blind spot, as the optic
nerve is located there. \n
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Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system

Duration of Usually within It may take years
response seconds (puberty)
Localized response Widespread
Area of response (only one area response (in many
usually) organs)
Development of the
Example of Reflexes such as
reproductive
process-controlled blinking
system
14.11. Homeostasis
14.9. Hormones Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
environment.
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.
specific target organs. The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback
with reference to a set point
Endocrine Glands
Negative Feedback Concept
adrenal glands and adrenaline
pancreas and insulin Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones and
testes and testosterone regulates their own production
ovaries and oestrogen
A negative feedback control is when the change in
Adrenaline hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change,
so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone
A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited.
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
14.12. Homeostasis: Blood Glucose
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
riding a rollercoaster. Control
Gland Hormone Function Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
Prepares the body for vigorous pancreas
Adrenal gland Adrenaline The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
action
depending on the blood glucose level
Reduces the concentration of
Pancreas Insulin Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
glucose in the blood
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Causes the development of
Testes Testosterone Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
male sexual characteristics
the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
Causes the development of releases it into the blood
Ovary Oestrogen
female sexual characteristics
Increases concentration of
Pancreas Glucagon
glucose in the blood
14.10. Nervous and Hormonal Control

Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow When the control of blood glucose does not work, a
Chemical person is said to have diabetes
Electrical impulses messengers
Nature of message travelling along (hormones) Type 1 Diabetes
nerves travelling in the
bloodstream Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that secrete
insulin.
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Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth, It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and shoots
blurred vision, and thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired, of plants
showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce (positive) or away (negative) from gravity.
blood glucose concentration
Auxins’ role in gravitropism:
Made in the shoot tip
14.13. Homeostasis: Temperature Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
Regulation Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and
gravity
Auxin stimulates cell elongation
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards

(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is
coming.
Auxins’ role in phototropism:

If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot,
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side.
Constant body temperature is maintained by: Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow
faster than cells on the right.
Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster
become erect to trap warm air by contracting erector than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the
muscles and vice versa. right side towards sunlight.
Vasodilation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply blood
to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become wider) to
allow more blood near the skin surface to increase heat 15. Drugs
loss (face redder)
Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or
blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become affects chemical reactions in the body. All drug metabolism is
smaller) to allow less blood near the skin surface to done in the Liver.
decrease heat loss
Sweating: the water evaporates, giving a cooling effect
Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send
15.1. Antibiotics
impulses to the hypothalamus
Antibiotics work by disrupting the cell wall formation of
Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
the bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but not of human
Sweat Glands: Producing sweat to regulate heat.
cells.
Thermoregulatory Centre: the hypothalamus controls
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces
corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering).
the effectiveness of antibiotics.
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when essential
and ensuring treatment is completed.
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not have
a cell wall and make the host cell perform their tasks.
15.2. Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through the
theory of natural selection:
Mutation, giving rise to variation

Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Competition for food space, among others
14.14. Tropic Responses Reproduce via binary fission
Then, alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.
Auxin:
Plant hormones or growth substances An example of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is Methicillin-
Controls tropisms resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
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16. Reproduction
16.1. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the production
of genetically identical offspring from one parent.
Bacteria:
Wind Pollinated Flowers
Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides
into two.
The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
divide into 2.
Advantages Disadvantages
Fast: no need to find a mate,
No variation/biodiversity
fertilise, etc.
Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred Functions
Overcrowding- fighting for
Do not need to carry offspring
food Sepal: protect the flower bud.
Prone to extinction Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
nectarines, which are all used to attract insects petals in
Syllabus 16.1.2: You must be able to identify wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams, bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens
images and information provided and stigma.
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain the
male nucleus (male gamete).
16.2. Sexual Reproduction Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the Syllabus 16.3.1 and 16.3.2: You must be able to
production of offspring that are genetically different from identify in diagrams and images and draw the
each other following parts of an insect-pollinated flower:
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers,
Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
carpels, style, stigma, ovary and ovules,
The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a
together with its function.
zygote is diploid
Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes 16.4. Pollination
Advantages Disadvantages Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the
Produces genetically different It takes lots of time and plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
offspring energy (stigma).
Reduced risk of extinction Mate required Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and
Energy on improving wind
appearances or pollen Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
volume for pollination (plants) nucleus in an ovule
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated

16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Bright, colourful petals – attract Dull petals
Insect Pollinated Flowers Sweetly scented No scent

Contains nectar No nectaries
Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and creates

a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle to ovules.
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Ovule: seed Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
Ovary: fruit female.
Self Pollination
Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther

of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different
flower on the same plant.
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition
pollination between plants
Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
disease
Cross-Pollination
Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the Female Reproductive System
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
plant of the same species. Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and
produces progesterone and oestrogen
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle,
Less susceptible to diseases More energy required moist by mucus with a small opening
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
secretes mucus
16.5. Germination
Germination: A process controlled by enzymes
Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores

into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
optimum temperature).
16.6. Sexual Reproduction In Humans 16.7. Fertilisation and Early

Male Reproductive System Development
Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
the cells between tubes produce testosterone. (sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell).
Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra. Development of a Zygote:
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
the penis sperm
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The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches 4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.
It implants itself in the uterus (implantation) wall,
followed by conception.
Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
growth (mitosis) and development (organisation of cells
into tissues and organs)
Features Functions
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the Energy storage Development of zygote
fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation
oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood) 16.9. Sexual Hormones in Humans
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus; The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during
mother’s blood) puberty
Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
broken at birth. Primary sexual characteristics: present during
Amniotic Fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical development in the uterus and are the differences in
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations reproductive organs etc., between males and females
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that
and affect the fetus. occur during puberty as children become adolescents
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
16.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes primary sex organs: the testes in males and the ovaries in
females.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
Sperm (Male Gamete)
that can recognize them.
1. Small in size Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes
16.10. The Menstrual Cycle
Day 1 to 5:
In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to

stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
Features Functions In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
Respiration to release energy Day 13/14/15:
Mitochondria
for swimming In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
Release digestive enzymes to to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
Enzymes in the acrosome the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
digest the jelly coat
Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Egg Cell (Female Gamete) Luteum
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
1. Larger in size
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
possible embryo implants.
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum
degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
to Day 1 transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised How it affects the immune system:
Implantation occurs. Infects and destroys lymphocytes
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
maintained, which means that progesterone is high. The body becomes liable to infection by other
This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy pathogens
This may lead to AIDS and death from infection
17. Inheritance
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele: an alternative form of a gene
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
chromosomes.
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes (e.g., in body cells)
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein.
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
to protein molecules.
17.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis

DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers, and
receptors for neurotransmitters
DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG

16.11. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
mRNA has AU and CG bases
Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus in
Oestrogen: secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from
the cytoplasm
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle,
Protein synthesis has two stages:
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
hormone LH.
bases of RNA)
Progesterone: secreted by the placenta during pregnancy,
Translation (using RNA base sequence to build amino
while during the menstrual cycle is by the ovaries. Its
acids into a sequence in a protein)
primary function is maintaining the uterus lining during
How proteins are made:
the middle of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary and
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
stimulates ovaries to release oestrogen hormone.
to the cytoplasm
Luteinizing hormone (LH): secreted by the pituitary gland
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
and causes mature eggs to be released from the ovary.
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
16.12. Sexually Transmitted Infections the sequence determines the specific order of amino
acids of bases in the mRNA
Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
sexually transmitted infection. many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
17.3. Cell Division: Mitosis Terminologies
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of

Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically identical
the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
cells
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
Mitosis is needed for:
or G)
Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
cells when needed.
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts.
Pedigree Diagram
Replacement of worn-out cells
Asexual reproduction: in plants Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a
The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before specific characteristic (usually a disease) through
mitosis generations of a family.
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
characteristic
cell This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.
Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to
produce daughter cells that can become specialised for
specific functions
17.4. Cell Division: Meiosis

Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number
is halved from diploid to haploid
Genetic Diagrams
Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a

genetic diagram known as a Punnett square.
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible
combinations of alleles that could be produced in the
offspring.
The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and
Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.
the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase.
Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
are not all genetically identical.
alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is
Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via
obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the
meiosis.
examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and
which is recessive.
17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.
Here are some common terminologies you should know

to understand monohybrid inheritance.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use

genetic diagrams to predict the results of
monohybrid crosses involving codominance or
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios.
18. Variation and Selection

18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Both genetic and environmental factors cause phenotypic
variation
Continuous Variation: results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length and
body mass
Discontinuous Variation: results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood groups,
seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas)
It is usually caused by genes only, and genes and the
environment cause continuous variation.
17.6. Codominance and Sex-Linked Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and describe
examples of continuous and discontinuous variation
Characteristics
Codominance: when both alleles in heterozygous organisms
contribute to the phenotype
Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance

There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.
Mutation
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the gene
responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it more Mutation: A genetic change.
common in one sex than in the other.
Gene Mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA
Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
1. genetic variation within populations

2. production of many offspring
3. struggle for survival, including competition for
resources
4. Individuals better adapted to the environment have a
greater chance of reproduction than others; these
individuals pass on their alleles to the next generation.
Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which

populations become more suited to their environment over
many generations.
Artificial Selection
Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued

18.2. Adaptive Features characteristics together to produce offspring that share those
valuable characteristics.
Adaptive Feature: an inherited (structural) feature that helps
an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment It can be used to produce organisms that are more
economically valued
Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce, and For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better
are: appearance
Deep roots reach the water far underground
Leaves have reduced spines with minimum surface Process of Selective Breeding:
area for transpiration
Selecting by individuals with desirable features
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
Crossing these individuals to produce the next generation
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs, and stomata sunk in pits to
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable to water
Stomata open at night and close at midday when 19. Organisms and their
evaporation is highest
E.g. cactus and marram grass Environment
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
Their features are: 19.1. Energy Flow
Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
area for absorption and photosynthesis The sun is the principal source of energy input to
Minimal cuticle formation biological systems.
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and then
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten by
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata animals, which other animals eat.
open and clear At each step, energy is lost to the environment.
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
absent Food Chains and Food Webs
18.3. Selection Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for
Natural Selection example:
The greater chance of the best-adapted organisms

passing on genes.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
Process of Natural Selection:
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food chains. Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass
Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the

organism in a food chain biomass
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain When moving up the pyramid,
(number of individuals × their
by ingestion the number of individuals
individual mass)
Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients, decreases
usually using energy from sunlight through
photosynthesis The pyramids of biomass are always pyramid-shaped or
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on upright.
other organisms.
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary, 19.2. Nutrient Cycles
tertiary and quaternary according to their position in a
food chain Carbon Cycle
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain,
food web or ecological pyramid.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels (plants)
because energy transfer is inefficient: It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
decomposed by microorganisms.
onto leaves.
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength. 2023 onwards
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not eat Nitrogen Cycle
the whole plant.
The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher
energy value.
At each level, heat is lost by respiration.
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating

animals because:
We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal but

to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of plant
material to get far less meat.
When raising an animal, plants lose energy to the
environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
environment and does not use up all the plant material, so
it is inefficient. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they live
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can

happen because of lightning or microorganisms providing 20. Human Influences on
them through decomposition.
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing substances Ecosystems
into better nitrogen-containing substances for the plants
(nitrification).
20.1. Food Supply
Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
proteins Humans have increased food production because:
Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to
stage one Agricultural Machinery to use larger areas of land and
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they convert improve efficiency
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric nitrogen Chemical Fertilisers help crops grow better
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects
19.3. Population Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
Selective Breeding to improve production by crop plants
Population: a group of organisms of one species living in and livestock
the same area at the same time.
Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of one
Community: all of the populations of different species in
type of genetically identical crop.
an ecosystem.
Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
and their environment interacting together. If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm them
easily
Food Supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium to Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
reproduce to make a shell. of species. This hinders biodiversity.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey
When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
population will rise. may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
their effectiveness
partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving birth, Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
or even population decline. Welfare issues for the livestock
Diseases can spread easily among them
19.4. Sigmoid Curve of Population Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
Growth
20.2. Habitat Destruction
Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
area.
Reason for habitat destruction

Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production, and housing
Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing Extraction of natural resources
individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed Freshwater and Marine pollution
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, the By altering food webs and food chains, humans can harm
conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate is habitats.
reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much. Effects of deforestation
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve warming
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum population Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
size. rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages,
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food, and the soil becomes less fertile
competition, etc. Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by foliage,
root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
accumulates in valleys.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Natural Resources:
20.3. Pollution
Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
Pollution due to pesticides: control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat
can be replenished.
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, which
Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in the
therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
dose of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next)
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which Recycling:
eat the plants
Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
Non-biodegradable plastics: environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
treatment
Choke birds, fish and other animals
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
raw materials for industry
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish
Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Global Warming: Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
energy
Increase in the average temperature of the Earth
Methane from the burping of cows Species and habitats need to be conserved because:
It started at the same time as humans began burning
fossil fuels Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven
yet new drugs)
It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are
in the atmosphere, causing an enhanced greenhouse lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
effect that leads to climate change. engineering)
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many then the whole ecosystem could collapse
nutrients. The use of artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro
fertilisation (IVF) in captive breeding programmes
Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers.
Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates leach Endangered species:
into rivers and lakes after rain
Water plants grow more than usual How they become endangered: climate change, habitat
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
They die and sink to the bottom If the population size drops, variation decreases
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and
decreasing the O2 concentration protecting species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes, and seed banks
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include:
reducing extinction
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
genes
increase biodiversity
20.4. Conservation
Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it 21. Biotechnology and
is removed from the environment so that it does not run out
Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably, Genetic Modification
limited to forests and fish stocks.
1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected 21.1. Introduction

areas, quotas and replanting.
Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and
2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education, closed
seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and their ability to make complex molecules.
mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass,

blood
Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such
as starch
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres
Lactase:
The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in

Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
modification? therefore, can’t digest lactose.
1. few ethical concerns over their manipulation and

growth
2. the presence of plasmids
3. producing complex molecules
4. replicates rapidly
21.2. Biotechnology
Biofuel
Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks down

to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.
Bread-Making
Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
the dough.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration. Lactose-free milk production
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast ferments
sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates bubbles, so Lactase made from yeast
bread rises. Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and Milk passed down beads
hardens the outer surface. Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Immobilized enzymes are reused
Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology
21.3. Fermenters
Pectinase:
Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy
Biological Washing powders:
Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes

that help remove the stain Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in Penicillium.
the wash, releasing the enzyme They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier supply and waste products.
for detergents to remove The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar Human Insulin in Bacteria
for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
nucleic acids
The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
Probes monitor temperature and pH
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
temperature of 24°C.
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an
even temperature.
It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized

to make capsules.
Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using

Mycoprotein
restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction
The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial
scale in fermenters. enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
optimum pH and temperature to grow. DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided the plasmid into bacteria.
with glucose syrup as a food source. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter which make human protein as they express the gene
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for 21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products.
21.4. Genetic Modification Uniform in shape – easy to
transport/appeal to Natural species may die
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an consumers
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes Decrease biodiversity/genetic
Growing season shorter
diversity
Examples of genetic modification:
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce Led to the development of
human insulin Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer GM
resistance to herbicides No one knows the long-term
Higher yields
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer effects on humans
resistance to insect pests Solve global hunger Expensive seeds
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins
CAIE IGCSE
Biology
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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 SYLLABUS

1.3. Features of Organisms

1.5. Arthropods 2. Organisation of the

Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and

Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a

Other Forms in Magnification Formula

Actual size = image size ÷ magnification

Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)

Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)

Tip: This comes out frequently in all three

Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.

Specialised Cells Specific Function Location of Cell

The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid

Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region of

3.3. Active Transport

Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it

Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the

Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled

Lock and Key Model

4.3. Structure of a DNA

Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different

5.2. Temperature on Enzymes

5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme

6.3. Investigation of Light

De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of

Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

cellulose to build cell walls

Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight

6.5. Limiting Factors

Tip! You need to know the purpose of these

Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into

Process of Digestion 7.5. Teeth

Incisors Canines Premolars Molars 7.7. Absorption and Villus

Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums

The small intestine is the region for absorption of

7.6. Chemical Digestion 8. Transport in Plants

Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the

9.2. Heart Example Past Year Question

caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)

9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate

The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood

9.6. Blood Vessels

Major Blood Vessels White Blood Cells

Phagocyte Lymphocyte hygienic food preparation

The surface of the pathogen contains antigens, and they

10.4. Cholera Composition of Breathing Dry Air

Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces Inspired Air Expired Air

Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat back

molecules in living cells to release energy. Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:

13. Excretion in Humans

Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules and

1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the

14. Coordination and

14.2. Types of Neurones

Carry impulses from the sense organs to the CNS.

The middleman inside the CNS connects sensory and

The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction

Cornea: refracts light

14.6. Pupil Reflex