ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Syllabus 1.2.4: Ensure you can construct and

use dichotomous keys based on identifiable
1. Characteristics and features

Classification of Living 1.3. Features of Organisms

Organisms The Five Kingdoms

1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
MRS GREN Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
organism causing a change of position or place Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
down nutrient molecules and release energy for cellulose, spread by spreading spores in moist/dark/warm
metabolism environments. Most have hyphae and mycelium in
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
the internal or external environment Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex:
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same E.coli, Salmonella.
kind of organism Protocists: Single-celled organism with a nucleus.
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements seaweed.
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development Guidance: For this section, learn the five
kingdoms' main features.
1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification Main Features of All Animals:
System
Multicellular
It contains a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they
share. Only feed on organic substances made by other living
things
Species are a group of organisms which can reproduce to
produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of classification: Kingdom → Phylum → Classes 1.4. Vertebrates
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
Mammals
Funny acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Fur/hair on the skin
Good Soup External ears (pinna)
Internal fertilisation, giving the birth of young
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
Mammary glands
internationally agreed system in which the scientific name
Reptiles
of an organism comprises two parts showing the genus
Thick, dry, scaly skin
and species.
Usually four legs
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalized,
Internal fertilisation, conception from egg
and the species are not.
Soft eggs
The classification of organisms helps show the
Fish
evolutionary relationships between them.
Wet scales
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
Streamlined body shape
classify organisms.
External fertilisation and soft eggs
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely related
Uses gills to breathe
two organisms are.
Amphibians
Dichotomous keys use visible features to classify
Smooth, moist skin
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and
External fertilisation and soft eggs
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to
Gills & Lungs can live on land and water
another option until the organism is narrowed down to its
Most have four legs
genus and species.
Birds

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Feathers on body and scales on legs
Constant internal body temperature
Hard eggs
Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs
Syllabus 1.3.3: You must be able to classify
organisms using the features identified above
1.5. Arthropods
Viruses are not part of any classification system due to
not being considered living things.
They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic
pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or
DNA) inside a protein coat.
Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
ribosomes)

Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.

All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

Crustaceans (e.g. crabs)

Have an exoskeleton, one pair of compound eyes
Two body segments – cephalothorax, abdomen
More than four pairs of legs (10-14 legs)
Arachnids: (e.g. spiders)
Two body segments – cephalothorax and abdomen
Four pairs of legs (8 legs)
Myriapods: (e.g. centipedes)
Segmented body
One pair of antennae
2. Organisation of the
10+ pairs of legs – 1 or 2 pairs on each segment
Insects: (e.g. bees)
Organism
Three body segments – head, thorax and abdomen
Three pairs of jointed legs (6 legs) 2.1. Cell Structure
One pair of antennae
1 or 2 pairs of wings All living things are made of cells.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
1.6. Classification of Plants All typical cells have:
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of cells
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
and flowering plants. Nucleus: contains DNA and controls the cell
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ferns: Ribosome: allows protein synthesis
Do not produce flowers/seeds Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves looks rough under the microscope.
Reproduce by spores A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Flowering plants: Plant cells especially also have:
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower strengthens the cell
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons energy for photosynthesis
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything
Parallel veins Branching veins above.
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves
3 Flower Parts 4 or 5 Flower Parts
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles

1.7. Viruses

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Specialised Cells Specific Function

Sperm and Egg cells
For reproduction
(gametes)

2.3. Size of Specimens

size of drawing image I
M agnification = = =
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

A
Other Forms in Magnification Formula

Actual size = image size / magnification

Prokaryotes (Bacteria) Image size = magnification x actual size

Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)

Prokaryotes DO NOT have mitochondria and a true nucleus.
1cm = 10mm
A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall, cell membrane,
1mm = 1000μm
cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA, and plasmids.
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)

3. Movement In and Out of

Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify the
cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells
Cells
3.1. Diffusion
Diffusion: Net movement of particles from a region of their
higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration
(i.e., down a concentration gradient) as a result of their
random movement.

2.2. Levels of Organisation

The division of existing cells produces new cells.
Key Terms

Cells: Building Blocks of Life

Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions. Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
random movement of molecules and ions.
Specialised Cells Specific Function The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
Movement of mucus in the it, molecules that are needed for life, for example, glucose
Ciliated cells and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to get to the
trachea and bronchi
places they are required.
Root Hair cells Absorption
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
Palisade Mesophyll cell Undergo photosynthesis
through the cell membrane
Conduction of electrical
Neurones
impulses Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)
Red Blood cells Transport of oxygen
Concentration gradient
Temperature

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Surface area Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
Distance molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules
(such as glucose and water) to pass through by
3.2. Osmosis diffusion and osmosis.

Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region of

higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane.

3.3. Active Transport

The role of water as a solvent in organisms to aid with
digestion, excretion, and transport Active Transport: Movement of particles through a cell
Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
cell membrane. (Passive Transport) concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient),
The concentration of solute outside the cell = using energy from respiration.
concentration inside the cell → no change in size
Carrier proteins are also used during active transport.
The concentration of solute outside the cell >
concentration inside the cell → cell shrinks (Flaccid)
The concentration of solute outside the cell <
concentration inside the cell → cell swells (Turgid)

In Animals

Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it

to burst (lysis) because it has too much water and no cell
wall.

In Plants

Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the

cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up.
Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from the
cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.
It is embedded in the cell membrane to pick up specific
molecules and take them through the cell membrane
against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
hair cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
(CHO)
Dialysis Tubing Experiment Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
Dialysis tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, partially
permeable membrane made from cellulose. Smaller molecules Larger molecules

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Smaller molecules Larger molecules The bases always pair up in the same way:
Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose A and T
C and G
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins
5. Enzymes
4.2. Food Tests
5.1. Enzymes
Starch: Add a few drops of iodine solution (+ve result =
blue-black colour, -ve result = remains brown) Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
Reducing sugars: Add Benedict’s solution, then the and is not changed by the reaction
mixture is heated in a water bath for 2 to 3 minutes Enzymes: Proteins that are involved in all metabolic
(70°C). (+ve result = brick-red precipitate, -ve result = reactions, where they function as biological catalysts.
remains blue) Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
Proteins: Add a few drops of Biuret solution, (+ve result = reaction to take place.
purple/lilac colour) It is essential in all living organisms regarding the reaction
Fats and oils: Ethanol Emulsion test; ethanol is added to rate necessary to sustain life.
the mixture, poured into a test tube with an equal amount Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
of distilled water, then shaken, (+ve result = milky-white
emulsion). Lock and Key Model
Vitamin C: Decolourisation of DCPIP shows that vitamin C
is probably present.

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react,

complementary to the active site.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction

Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different

shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences may
be deferred in their function.

4.3. Structure of a DNA 5.2. Temperature on Enzymes

Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature
Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
at which they work best, giving the fastest reaction ≈ at
DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
37°C in animals & human bodies.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape and
no longer binding with a substrate.
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.

5.3. pH on Enzymes
Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled
DNA Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
Each strand contains chemicals called Bases alkaline.
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.

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If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions.
5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
Activity
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
will remain brown.

6.3. Investigation of Light

NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology Paper
2.

6. Plant Nutrition De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours

Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
6.1. Photosynthesis Remove the stencil and test for starch
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain brown
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
light+chlorophyll
C arbonDioxide + Water ​ Glucose + Oxygen
light+cholorophyll
6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ +C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of

a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and
converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates
and their subsequent storage.
6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
Take two de-starched potted plants.
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in B.
Photosynthesis Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​

produces C O2 . ​

starch as an energy store Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

cellulose to build cell walls C O2 .
​

glucose used in respiration to provide energy Keep both set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.
sucrose for transport in the phloem Perform the starch test on both plants.
nectar to attract insects for pollination

6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll

Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
about 48 hours.
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
test
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
by ethanol.

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Hydrogencarbonate indicator - measures the carbon dioxide
concentration
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to
prevent water loss and open to letting gases in and out.
When guard cells lose water, the stoma closes (at night),
while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water &
swell (during the day).

6.5. Limiting Factors

Limiting Factors: something present in the environment in
such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Light Intensity
As the amount of light Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain how
increases, the rate of the structures above adapt leaves for
photosynthesis increases (a- photosynthesis
b)
The limiting factor is light 6.7. Mineral Requirements
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
affect the rate (c) Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
The limiting factor is now Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: plant lacks
carbon dioxide or slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow
temperature
Tip! You need to know the purpose of these
6.6. Leaf Structure required nutrients.

Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area

and are thin. 7. Human Nutrition
7.1. Diet
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
to maintain good health and metabolism.

Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the Children Below 12: Require more calcium
top of the leaf Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and Males: Generally, require more energy
contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells that create air 7.2. Nutrition
spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place; do
not contain many chloroplasts
Nutrients Uses
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem
Carbohydrates Energy
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved
minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose
Phloem: a vessel that transports nutrients

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Nutrients Uses Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis

Source of energy, building materials, (circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy, from mouth to stomach
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in acidic
making hormones
conditions) to break down proteins into amino acids and
Energy, building materials, enzymes,
kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also have elastic
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
walls.
(muscle), hormones, antibodies
Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases parts:
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by
Development and maintenance of pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Calcium Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
strong bones and teeth
Iron Making haemoglobin down starch.
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
Provides bulk for faeces, helps
Fibre (Roughage) is where absorption takes place, adapted by having
peristalsis
villi and microvilli.
Chemical reactions, solvent for Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
Water
transport works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
7.3. Deficiencies molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes and other toxins.
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
and teeth Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
7.4. Digestive System and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to
be known.

Process of Digestion
7.5. Teeth

Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
body through the mouth.
Physical Digestion: breakdown of food into smaller pieces
without chemical change.
It increases the surface area of food for the action of
enzymes in chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, soluble molecules.
Blunt for
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines Blunt chewing
Rectangular chewing and
into the blood Sharp-pointed and grinding.
shape, sharp grinding, one
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells for piercing Two or three
for cutting and or two roots,
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body and tearing roots, ridges
biting cusps/bumps
as faeces at the end
at the end
Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal
Structure of Tooth
Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums
ingestion takes place
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus

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Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from

calcium salts
Cement: helps to anchor tooth
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
nerve endings which detect pain.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
collagen fibres
Nerves
Blood vessels
The small intestine is the region for absorption of
digested food.
7.6. Chemical Digestion The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
Chemical Digestion: Enzymes are used to break down large on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
insoluble substances, such as proteins, into smaller soluble More surface area means more absorption of nutrients
substances, like amino acids so that they can be absorbed. can happen.
Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced
Capillaries: provide a better blood supply
in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland)
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
Maltase: breaks down into glucose in the membrane of
some from the colon (large intestine).
the epithelium lining in small intestines.
Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides (done by
pepsin-acidic) and then into amino acids (done by trypsin).
Pepsin comes from the stomach and trypsin comes from
8. Transport in Plants
the pancreas (alkali).
Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, 8.1. Xylem and Phloem
produced by the pancreas.
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice: Functions of Xylem
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
transport water and mineral ions, and support
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens Functions of Phloem
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid mixture
of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from transport sucrose and amino acids
the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.
Adaptations of Xylem

7.7. Absorption and Villus 1. thick walls with lignin (details of lignification are not
required)
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines 2. no cell contents
into the blood 3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long, continuous tube

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Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and
images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
dicotyledonous plants
8.2. Water Uptake
Root Hair Cells
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis and
ions by active transport.
The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases
the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Then, it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly,
the mesophyll cells.
Investigate the Pathway of Water through the
Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food
colouring) added.
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour
as the dyed water.
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing that
it is being carried in specific vessels through the stem -
a.k.a xylem vessels.
8.3. Transpiration
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
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air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.
Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between
mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata.
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.
Wilting
Wilting: occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake – cells
become flaccid, and tissues become limp.
Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration
Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the water-
holding capacity of air and increase the transpiration rate
Humidity: Low humidity increases the water potential
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence
increasing the transpiration rate
Wind speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
steep concentration gradient
8.4. Translocation
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).
Translocation in different seasons:
Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.
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9. Transport in Animals
9.1. Circulatory Systems
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
to ensure a one-way flow of blood.
Single circulation system (fish):
Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit
Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills
Released in body cells, then back to the heart
Double circulation system:
Four heart chambers
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
circuit
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and
back to the heart
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated
blood to it from the lungs
9.2. Heart
The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
circuit.
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Right atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the
right ventricle
Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate.
Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the left atrium
Left atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the
left ventricle
Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the
aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and semi-lunar valves: prevent backflow
of blood
Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right Ventricle < Left
Ventricle
9.3. Functioning of the Heart
The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows
into the right atrium via the vena cava.
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the right
ventricle.
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve,
which prevents blood from flowing backwards into the
heart.
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
capillaries, passing the alveoli.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
pulmonary vein
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the left
ventricle
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood from
flowing back down into the heart
Exemplar Past Year Question
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
(0610/42/F/M/23)
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax
9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate
The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
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Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.
9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the liver
back to the heart
The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
from the gut to the liver

The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood

supply to the heart muscle.
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
genetic predisposition, age and sex
This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food Arterioles and Venules
(a good diet) and exercising regularly

9.6. Blood Vessels

Vessel Function Structure
Elastic tissue walls
stretch and relax as
blood is forced out;
Transport high-pressure causes pulse
Arteries The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
arterioles
high pressure
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
Small lumen maintains venules
(high) blood pressure.
Valves prevent backflow 9.7. Blood
of blood.
Blood is at low pressure, Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
but nearby muscles oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
Transport low pressure
Veins squeeze veins and help White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
blood to the heart
push blood to the heart Platelets: allows blood clotting
Large and wide lumen to Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
reduce resistance to the hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
flow of blood dissolved substances)
One cell thick wall for Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify red
easy diffusion and white blood cells in photomicrographs and
Highly branched; large diagrams
Allow substances to surface area
Capillaries
diffuse into cells Capillary beds
constantly supplied with
fresh blood, so diffusion
occurs

Major Blood Vessels White Blood Cells

Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins Phagocytes have
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins Lymphocytes have a circular
lobed/irregular C-shaped
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein nucleus and are found in
nuclei and vesicles containing
blood
The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
digestive enzymes.
heart to the liver

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Phagocyte Lymphocyte waste disposal

Phagocytosis: engulfs sewage treatment
Large nucleus/small
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
cytoplasm, and they produce
the vacuole, enzymes digest
antibodies,
10.3. Active and Passive Immunity
bacteria.
Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens leading to the direct
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens, destruction of pathogens or marking pathogens for
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction destruction by phagocytes.
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes.
Pathogen molecules are called antigens, and they have
specific shapes
Blood Clotting Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit
specific antigens
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a that are exactly the right shape to fit into molecules
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form (antigens) outside the pathogen.
a scab.
Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to
10. Diseases and Immunity engulf.
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
10.1. Pathogens and divide rapidly by mitosis.

Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
Transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen
can be passed from one host to another.
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
transmitted either:
Direct contact e.g., through blood, body fluids
Indirect contact e.g., contaminated surfaces/food,
from animals, from air
10.2. Body Defences
The human body has many natural defences against
pathogens.
Mechanical barriers:
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
defences are destroyed by white blood cells:
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
by phagocytosis
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the
pathogen
Vaccination against disease helps antibodies to be
made very quickly
Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases
a clean water supply
hygienic food preparation
good personal hygiene
These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating active
immunity.
Active Immunity
Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
production in the body.
Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or
by vaccination.
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
pathogens
Process of Vaccination:
weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the
body
the antigens stimulate an immune response by
lymphocytes which produce antibodies
memory cells are produced that give long-term
immunity
Passive Immunity
Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen by
antibodies acquired from another individual.
Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity
Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
which are passed on to her baby.
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
against any diseases.
Some diseases are caused by the immune system
targeting and destroying body cells (Auto-immune
disease)

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10.4. Cholera Composition of Breathing Dry Air

Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces Inspired Air Expired Air

To cure this, is oral rehydration therapy Oxygen 21% 16%
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio chlorae”, Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
causing cholera. Nitrogen 78% 78%
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in
Water Vapour Lower Higher
contaminated water.
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result =
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing
lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing turns cloudy
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing
11. Gas Exchange in Humans Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
respiration - and higher CO2 concentration in the blood.
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
spirogram.
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the
Properties Reasons
change in breathing volume and rate helps keep CO2
Short distance to diffuse (one cell
Thin surface concentration and pH safe.
thick)
Many molecules can diffuse at
Large surface area
once/More alveoli
11.4. Breathing
Regular fresh air supplies keep up
Inspiration Expiration
Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen
External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles
and carbon dioxide.
contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls
Gases can be carried to/from the
Good blood supply upwards and outwards downwards and inwards
cells that need/produce them
Diaphragm muscles contract Diaphragm muscles relax –
– the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
11.2. Structure of the Lungs downwards, and the volume the volume of the thorax
of the thorax increases decreases
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles,
Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure <
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax
capillaries
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs

Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and expand
and contract (and efficient breathing).
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall. sneezing.
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs. and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.

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Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat back

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration
and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the
lungs into the mouth.
Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break down
nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen.
12. Respiration In muscles (vigorous exercise):
Glucose → Lactic Acid
12.1. Respiration In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + C arbon Dioxide
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient C 6 H12 O6 → 2C 2 H5 OH + 2C O2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

molecules in living cells to release energy. Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:

Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle molecule that aerobic respiration would
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
Produces poisonous lactic acid
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
Lactic Acid:
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to exercise
speed up the reaction.
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.
An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
Oxygen Debt is removed by:
the effect of temperature on yeast cells.
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically,
in the blood from the muscles to the liver
though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
is being investigated.
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the
suspension.
The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless, 12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and
the faster the respiration rate. Anaerobic Respiration
IV: Effect of Temperature
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for
Aerobic Anaerobic
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless)
Oxygen Needed Not needed
Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Amount of Energy
More Less
Released

13. Excretion in Humans

Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that
energy is released; it is NEVER made,
produced, or created.
12.2. Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy
Glucose + Oxygen → C arbonDioxide + Water
C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
13.1. Excretion
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.
Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,
excess water and ions (kidney).
The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
urea.

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13.2. Function of Liver
The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
converting them to proteins.
Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of
amino acids to form urea.
Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
Do remember assimilation is the uptake and use of
nutrients by cells.
13.3. Function of Kidney
Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
of glucose and some salts
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
Bladder: stores urine
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Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules and
leaves wastes behind
13.4. Structure and Function of the
Nephron
1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the
glomerulus. Water, urea, salts and glucose are forced
into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and large
proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of the
salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but not
salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the nephron
by osmosis because of the low water potential of the
medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into
the collecting duct, forming urine.
14. Coordination and
Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises nerves
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
functions.
Electrical impulses travel through the neurones.
The nervous system helps with the coordination and
regulation of body functions.
14.2. Types of Neurones
Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
nerve cells called neurones
Motor Neurone
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Sensory Neurone

14.4. Synapse
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter

Relay Neurone

14.3. Simple Reflex Arc

Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors only.
(muscles and glands). Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of
neurones
E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles
surface (vesicles, each containing a chemical called
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay neurotransmitter)
neurone and a motor neurone. When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
The gap between neurones is called a synapse. membrane and empty their content into the synaptic cleft.
How the simple reflex arc works: The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse) of the relay neurone.
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the receptor This can happen because the neurotransmitter
to the CNS molecules' shape complements the receptor molecule's
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly shape.
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
cord
14.5. Sense Organs
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector
Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature and chemicals.
the response

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Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
different colours (Rods and cones)
Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain

14.6. Pupil Reflex

Near Object Distant Object
Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory Ligaments slack Suspensory Ligaments tighten
Adjusting for high and low light intensity The lens becomes short and The lens becomes long and
An involuntary response fat thin

Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity Exemplar Past Year Question
Radial muscles (straight lines)
Circular muscles (circular
contract and become shorter Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if the
lines) contract and become suspensory ligaments become permanently overstretched.
to pull the pupil (black dot),
shorter to reduce pupil size (0610/42/F/M/23)
making it wider to let more
and protect the retina from
light enter to form a clear
bleaching. 1. ciliary muscles relax
image on the retina
2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
14.7. Accommodation 4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged

Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.

14.8. Rods and Cones
The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called
accommodation Rods Cones
The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when the Provide low detail, black &
Provide detailed, coloured
suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight or loose white images, suitable for
images; they work in high light
The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles brings seeing in low-intensity light (at
intensity.
about the changes night).
Packed most tightly around
Most tightly packed at the
the edge of the retina, so you
retina's centre, objects are
can see things most clearly
seen most clearly when
when not looking directly at
directly looking at them.
them.

Fovea:
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed
most closely together
Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object

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Distribution of Rods and Cones Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system

Duration of Usually within It may take years
response seconds (puberty)
Localized response Widespread
Area of response (only one area response (in many
usually) organs)
Development of the
Example of Reflexes such as
reproductive
process-controlled blinking
system

14.11. Homeostasis
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
14.9. Hormones
environment.
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback
specific target organs. with reference to a set point

Endocrine Glands Negative Feedback

adrenal glands and adrenaline Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones and
pancreas and insulin regulates their own production
testes and testosterone
ovaries and oestrogen A negative feedback control is when the change in
hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change,
Adrenaline so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone
production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited.
A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland.
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
14.12. Glucoregulation
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
riding a rollercoaster.
pancreas
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
Gland Hormone Function
depending on the blood glucose level
Prepares the body for vigorous
Adrenal gland Adrenaline Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
action
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Reduces the concentration of Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
Pancreas Insulin
glucose in the blood the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
Causes the development of releases it into the blood
Testes Testosterone
male sexual characteristics
Causes the development of
Ovary Oestrogen
female sexual characteristics
Increases concentration of
Pancreas Glucagon
glucose in the blood

14.10. Nervous and Hormonal Control

When the control of blood glucose does not work, a
Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system person is said to have diabetes
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Chemical
Type 1 Diabetes
Electrical impulses messengers
Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that secrete
Nature of message travelling along (hormones)
insulin.
nerves travelling in the
bloodstream

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Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth,
blurred vision, and feel thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired,
showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
blood glucose concentration
14.13. Thermoregulation
Constant body temperature is maintained by:
Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs
become erect to trap warm air by contracting erector
muscles and vice versa.
Vasodilation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply blood
to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become wider) to
allow more blood near the skin surface to increase heat
loss (face redder)
Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply
blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become
smaller) to allow less blood near the skin surface to
decrease heat loss
Sweating: the water evaporates, giving a cooling effect
Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send
impulses to the hypothalamus
Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
Thermoregulatory Centre: the hypothalamus controls
corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering).
14.14. Tropic Responses
Auxin:
Plant hormones or growth substances
Controls tropisms
It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and shoots
of plants
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Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity.
Auxins’ role in gravitropism:
Made in the shoot tip
Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and
gravity
Auxin stimulates cell elongation
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is
coming.
Auxins’ role in phototropism:
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot,
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side.
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow
faster than cells on the right.
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the
right side towards sunlight.
15. Drugs
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or
affects chemical reactions in the body.
15.1. Antibiotics
Antibiotics work by disrupting the cell wall formation of
the bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but not of human
cells.
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces
the effectiveness of antibiotics.
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when essential
and ensuring treatment is completed.
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not have
a cell wall and make the host cell perform their tasks.
15.2. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through
natural selection, where it begins from:
Mutation - giving rise to variation
Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Competition for food space, etc
Reproduce via binary fission
Then, alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.
16. Reproduction
16.1. Asexual Reproduction
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Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the production Wind Pollinated Flowers
of genetically identical offspring from one parent.

Bacteria:
Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides
into two.
The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
divide into 2.

Advantages Disadvantages
Functions
Fast: no need to find a mate,
No variation/biodiversity
fertilise, etc.
Sepal: protect the flower bud.
Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
Overcrowding- fighting for nectarines, which are all used to attract insects petals in
Do not need to carry offspring
food wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
Prone to extinction bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens
and stigma.
Syllabus 16.1.2: You must be able to identify Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain the
examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams, male nucleus (male gamete).
images and information provided Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.

16.2. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other
Syllabus 16.3.1 and 16.3.2: You must be able to
identify in diagrams and images and draw the
following parts of an insect-pollinated flower:
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers,
carpels, style, stigma, ovary and ovules,
together with its function.

Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei

The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a 16.4. Pollination
zygote is diploid
Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the
Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
(stigma).
Advantages Disadvantages
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and
Produces genetically different It takes lots of time and
wind
offspring energy
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
Reduced risk of extinction Mate required nucleus in an ovule
Energy on improving
appearances or pollen Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
volume for pollination (plants) Bright, colourful petals –
Dull petals
attract
16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants Sweetly scented No scent
Contains nectar No nectaries
Insect Pollinated Flowers A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
Anther & stigma inside the
Anther and Stigma hang out
flower
Sticky stigma Feathery stigma

Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and creates

a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle, to the
ovules.
Ovule - seed
Ovary - fruit

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Self Pollination

Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther

of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different
flower on the same plant.
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition
pollination between plants
Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
disease

Cross-Pollination

Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the Female Reproductive System
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
plant of the same species. Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and
produces progesterone and oestrogen
Advantages Disadvantages
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle,
Less susceptible to diseases More energy required moist by mucus with a small opening
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
secretes mucus

16.5. Germination
Germination: A process controlled by enzymes

Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores

into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
optimum temperature).

16.6. Sexual Reproduction In Humans

Male Reproductive System
Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and
the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
the penis
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
female.
16.7. Fertilisation and Early
Development
Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
(sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell).
Development of a Zygote:
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.

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The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.
It implants itself in the nucleus's (implantation) wall,
followed by conception.
Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
growth (mitosis) and development (organisation of cells
into tissues and organs)
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the
fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries
oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
mother’s blood)
Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
broken at birth.
Amniotic Fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
and affect the fetus.
16.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes
Sperm (Male Gamete)
1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes
4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes
Features Functions
Energy storage Development of zygote
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation
16.9. Sex Hormones in Humans
The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development
and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty
Primary sexual characteristics: present during
development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc., between males and females
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that
occur during puberty as children become adolescents
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
primary sex organs; the testes in males and the ovaries in
females.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
which can recognize them.
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.

16.10. Menstrual Cycle

Day 1 to 5:

In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to

stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
menstruation
Features Functions Day 5 to 12:
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
Respiration to release energy In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
Mitochondria ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
for swimming
Release digestive enzymes to Day 13/14/15:
Enzymes in the acrosome In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
digest the jelly coat
to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
Egg Cell (Female Gamete)
Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
1. Larger in size
Luteum
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
possible embryo implants.
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum
degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.

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This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back
to Day 1
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
Implantation occurs.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum
maintained, which means that progesterone is high.
This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy
Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
How it affects the immune system:
Infects and destroys lymphocytes
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
The body becomes liable to infection by other
pathogens
This may lead to AIDS and death from infection

17. Inheritance
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele: an alternative form of a gene
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
chromosomes.
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes (e.g., in body cells)
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein.
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
to protein molecules.

17.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis

DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers and
receptors for neurotransmitters

DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG

16.11. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
Protein synthesis has two stages:
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
Oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from
bases of RNA)
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle,
Translation (using RNA base sequence to build amino
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the
acids into a sequence in a protein)
hormone LH.
How proteins are made:
Progesterone is a hormone secreted by ovaries. It
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the
to the cytoplasm
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary and
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
stimulates ovaries to release the hormone oestrogen.
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
Luteinizing hormone (LH): is also secreted by the pituitary
molecules
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the
the sequence determines the specific order of amino
ovary.
acids of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
16.12. Sexually Transmitted Infections many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs
Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a
sexually transmitted infection.
17.3. Mitosis

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Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically identical
cells
Mitosis is needed for:
Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new
cells when needed.
Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts.
Replacement of worn-out cells
Asexual reproduction: in plants
The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before
mitosis
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
cell
Stem Cells: unspecialized cells that divide by mitosis to
produce daughter cells that can become specialized for
specific functions
17.4. Meiosis
Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number
is halved from diploid to haploid
Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.
Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
are not all genetically identical.
17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.
Terminologies
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of
the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
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genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Pedigree Diagram
Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a
specific characteristic (usually a disease) through
generations of a family.
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.
Genetic Diagrams
Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a
genetic diagram known as a Punnett square.
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible
combinations of alleles that could be produced in the
offspring.
The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and
the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase.
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is
obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the
examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and
which is recessive.
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses
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common in one sex than in the other.

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use

genetic diagrams to predict the results of
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses monohybrid crosses involving codominance or
sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios.

18. Variation and Selection

18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Both genetic and environmental factors cause phenotypic
variation
Continuous variation: results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length and
body mass
Discontinuous variation: results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood groups,
seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas)
It is usually caused by genes only, and both genes and the
Codominance: when both alleles in heterozygous organisms
environment cause continuous variation.
contribute to the phenotype
Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and describe
Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance
examples of continuous and discontinuous variation
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.

Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the gene

responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it more

Mutation

Mutation: A genetic change.

Gene mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA

Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations

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Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation
18.2. Adaptive Features
Adaptive feature: an inherited (structural) feature that helps
an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment
Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce, and
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features
are:
Deep roots reach the water far underground
Leaves reduced spines with minimum surface area for
transpiration
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits to
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable water
Stomata open at night and close at midday when
evaporation is highest
E.g. cactus and marram grass
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
Their features are:
Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
area for absorption and photosynthesis
Minimal cuticle formation
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
open and clear
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
absent
18.3. Selection
Natural Selection
The greater chance of passing on genes by the best-
adapted organisms.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
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Process of Natural Selection:
1. genetic variation within populations
2. production of many offspring
3. struggle for survival, including competition for
resources
4. There is a greater chance of reproduction by
individuals who are better adapted to the environment
than others; these individuals pass on their alleles to
the next generation.
Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which
populations become more suited to their environment over
many generations.
Artificial Selection
Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued
characteristics together to produce offspring that share those
valuable characteristics.
It can be used to produce organisms that are more
economically valued
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better
appearance
Process of Selective Breeding:
Selecting by individuals with desirable features
Crossing three individuals to produce the next generation
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
19. Organisms and their
Environment
19.1. Energy Flow
The sun is the principal source of energy input to
biological systems.
Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and then
that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten by
animals, which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.
Food Chains and Food Webs
Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for
example:
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Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food chains. Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass

Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the

organism in a food chain biomass
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain When moving up the pyramid,
(number of individuals × their
by ingestion the number of individuals
individual mass)
Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients, decreases
usually using energy from sunlight through
photosynthesis The pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped.
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on
other organisms. 19.2. Nutrient Cycles
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary according to their position in a Carbon Cycle
food chain
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain,
food web or ecological pyramid.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
(plants)
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
because energy transfer is inefficient: It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and
decomposed by microorganisms.
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
onto leaves. Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of 2023 onwards
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because Nitrogen Cycle
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not eat
the whole plant.
The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher
energy value.
At each level, heat is lost by respiration.

Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating

animals because:

We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal but

to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of plant
material to get far less meat.
When raising an animal, plants lose energy in the
environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
environment and does not use up all the plant material, so Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
it is inefficient. plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they live
in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can

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happen because of lightning or microorganisms providing
them through decomposition.
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing substances
into better nitrogen-containing substances for the plants
(nitrification).
Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
proteins
Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to
stage one
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they convert
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric nitrogen
19.3. Population
Population: a group of organisms of one species living in
the same area at the same time.
Community: all of the populations of different species in
an ecosystem.
Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms
and their environment interacting together.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth
Food supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium to
reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey
population will rise.
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving birth,
or even population decline.
19.4. Sigmoid Curve of Population
Growth
Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing
individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, the
conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate is
reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much.
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum population
size.
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
competition, etc.
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20. Human Influences on
Ecosystems
20.1. Food Supply
Humans have increased food production because:
Agricultural machinery to use larger areas of land and
improve efficiency
Chemical fertilisers help crops grow better
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
Selective breeding to improve production by crop plants
and livestock
Large-scale monoculture: the continuous production of one
type of genetically identical crop.
Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm them
easily
Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
of species. This hinders biodiversity.
When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
their effectiveness
Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
Welfare issues for the livestock
Diseases can spread easily among them
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
20.2. Habitat Destruction
Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
area.
Reason for habitat destruction
Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production, and housing
Extraction of natural resources
Freshwater and Marine pollution
By altering food webs and food chains, humans can harm
habitats.
Effects of deforestation
Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
warming
Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages,
and the soil becomes less fertile
Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by foliage,
root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
accumulates in valleys.
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20.3. Pollution
Pollution due to pesticides:
Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, which
are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in the
dose of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next)
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which
eat the plants
Non-biodegradable plastics:
Choke birds, fish and other animals
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish
Global Warming:
Increase in the average temperature of the Earth
Methane from the burping of cows
It started at the same time as humans began burning
fossil fuels
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven
yet
It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations
in the atmosphere, causing an enhanced greenhouse
effect that leads to climate change.
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many
nutrients.
Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers.
Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates leach
into rivers and lakes after rain
Water plants grow more than usual
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
They die and sink to the bottom
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and
decreasing the O2 concentration
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
20.4. Conservation
Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it
is removed from the environment so that it does not run out
Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably,
limited to forests and fish stocks.
1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected
areas, quotas and replanting.
2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education, closed
seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and
mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
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Natural Resources:
Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
can be replenished.
Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
Recycling:
Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
treatment
Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
raw materials for industry
Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
energy
Species and habitats need to be conserved because:
Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
new drugs)
Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are
lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
engineering)
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
then the whole ecosystem could collapse
The use of artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro
fertilisation (IVF) in captive breeding programmes
Endangered species:
How they become endangered: climate change, habitat
destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
If the population size drops, variation decreases
Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and
protecting species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes, and seed banks
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include:
reducing extinction
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
genes
increase biodiversity
21. Biotechnology and
Genetic Modification
21.1. Introduction
Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and
their ability to make complex molecules.
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Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil

Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such
as starch
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres

Lactase:

The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in

milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
therefore, can’t digest lactose.
Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic
modification?

1. few ethical concerns over their manipulation and

growth
2. the presence of plasmids

21.2. Biotechnology
Biofuel

Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks down

to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.

Bread-Making

Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
the dough.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration. Lactose-free milk production
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast ferments
sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates bubbles, so Lactase made from yeast
bread rises. Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and Milk passed down beads
hardens the outer surface. Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Immobilized enzymes are reused
Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology
21.3. Fermenters
Pectinase:

Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy

Biological Washing powders:

Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes

that help remove the stain Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in Penicillium.
the wash, releasing the enzyme They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier supply and waste products.
for detergents to remove The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
blood Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and

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nucleic acids Human Insulin in Bacteria

The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
Probes monitor temperature and pH
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
temperature of 24°C.
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an
even temperature.

It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized

to make capsules.

Mycoprotein

The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
scale in fermenters. restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the
optimum pH and temperature to grow. enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
with glucose syrup as a food source. DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter the plasmid into bacteria.
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for which make human protein as they express the gene
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products.
21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
21.4. Genetic Modification
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an Uniform in shape – easy to
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes transport/appeal to Natural species may die
consumers
Examples of genetic modification:
Decrease biodiversity/genetic
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce Growing season shorter
diversity
human insulin
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer Led to the development of
resistance to herbicides Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer GM
resistance to insect pests No one knows the long-term
Higher yields
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide effects on humans
additional vitamins Solve global hunger Expensive seeds

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Biology

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