Earthworms use circular and longitudinal muscles to
move through soil or along surfaces.
The Science of Zoology
Zoology is the study of life
Zoology specialize by studying the particular functional,
structural, or ecological aspects of one or more animal
groups.
Animals originated in the Precambrian seas over 600 million
years ago
Characteristics of Animals:
Eukaryotic: cells contain membrane-enclosed nuclei
Heterotrophic: Not capable of manufacturing their own
food and must rely on external food sources.
Cells lack cell walls
Characteristics of Life
1. Chemical Uniqueness
Demonstrate a unique and complex molecular organization
Macromolecules evolved early in the history of life
Found in every form of life today
2. Complexity and Hierarchical Organization
Molecules are organized into patterns in the living world that
do not exist in the nonliving world.
Emergent properties
organization.
3. Reproduction
Animals can reproduce themselves
Genes replicate themselves
Cells divide to produce new cells
Organisms reproduce to produce new organisms
4. Genetic Program
Provides fidelity of inheritance
Genetic information is coded in DNA
The genetic code is universal among living organisms from
bacteria through humans.
Supports the concept of a single origin of life
5. Metabolism
Living Organisms maintain themselves by acquiring
nutrients from their environments.
Includes all of the chemical reactions occurring within an
organism
Digestion
Respiration
Synthesis of molecules
6. Development
All organisms pass through characteristic stages in their life
cycle
Includes characteristic changes an organism passes through
from its beginning (usually as fertilized egg) through
adulthood.
7. Environmental Interaction
Living organisms interact with their environments
8. Movement
Organisms, like the animals, show precise and controlled
movement of their body parts
Extract energy from their environments permitting the
initiation of controlled movements.
Movements at the cellular level are required for:
Reproduction
Growth
Responses to stimuli
Development in multicellular organisms
Evolution and Heredity
Powerful theories that guide extensive research are called
paradigms.
Two major paradigms that guide zoological research
1.
2. The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance (Gregor
Mendel)
Theory of Evolution
Charles Darwin - Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection, 1859.
Natural selection requires:
Variation within the population
This variation must be heritable
Organisms with a particular variation will have more
offspring.
Over time, these successful variations will spread through the
population.
Adaptation results when the most favorable variants
accumulate over evolutionary time.
Mendelian Heredity
Gregor Mendel - performed experiments on garden peas
leading to an understanding of how chromosomal inheritance
works.
The peas can self-fertilize or outcross
Mendel could control who the parents were.
Mendel always started with true-breeding parents.
E.g. self-fertilized white flowered parents always produced
white flowered offspring.
Zoology: An Ecological Perspective
The study of the relationships between organisms and their
environment
Failure to understand ecological relationships among animals
and their environment has resulted in detrimental
consequences.
Nile perch (Lates niloticus) in Lake Victoria
World Resources and Endangered Animals
Human global overpopulation
Root of all other environmental problems
Population estimated to be 9.6 billion by 2050
World Resources
Overpopulation stresses all resources
Climate change, deforestation, water shortages, extinction
of species
Solutions require dealing with overpopulation
ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN OF AN ANIMAL
The Appearance of Major Body Plans
The Cambrian explosion marks the earliest fossil appearance of all
major groups of living animals plus some groups that are
onlyknown from fossils. Burgess Shale fossil formation provides
evidence of the results of the Cambrian explosion
All major body plans appeared at this time.
Body Plans
One way zoologists categorize the diversity of animals is
according to general features of morphology and
development.
Body plans are constrained by ancestry, major features may
become modified
Animal body plans differ in their body symmetry, number of
germ layers, and type of body cavity.
Animal Symmetry
Animal Symmetry
Radial Symmetry applies when more than two planes
passing through the longitudinal axis can divide the
organism into mirror image halves.
Bilateral Symmetry is found in organisms where one plane
can pass through the organism dividing it into right and left
halves.
Cephalization
Bilateral symmetry is associated with
cephalization, differentiation of a head.
Nervous tissue, sense organs, and often the
mouth are located in the head.
Advantages for organisms moving head first-
directional movement
Regions of a Bilaterally Symmetrical Animal
Anterior - posterior (transverse plane)
Dorsal-ventral (frontal plane)
Left-right (sagittal plane)
Proximal-distal
Medial-lateral
Components of Animal Bodies (Metazoan)
Composed of:
Noncellular components of metazoan animals:
Body fluids (blood fluid, tissue fluid)
Extracellular structural elements (supportive
material of the organism like cuticle, cartilage)
Cellular components - derived from the three embryonic
germ layers
Organization of Animal Bodies Based on Tissue Layers and Body
Cavities
A tissue is a group of similar cells specialized for performing a
common function.
Different types of tissues have different structures that are
suited to their functions.
Tissues are classified into four main categories:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Cellular Components - Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines
organs and cavities within the body.
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
Simple, stratified.
Epithelia are classified by cell form and number of layers
Simple Epithelia - occur in metazoan animals
Stratified Epithelia - restricted to vertebrates
Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple squamous epithelium - composed of flattened cells that
form a continuous lining of blood capillaries, lungs, and other
surfaces where it permits diffusion of gases and transport of other
molecules into and out of cavities.
2. Simple cuboidal epithelium - composed of short, boxlike cells.
Cuboidal epithelium often lines small ducts and tubules such as
those of the kidney and salivary glands and may have active
secretory or absorptive functions.
3. Simple columnar epithelium - resembles cuboidal epithelium but
the cells are tall and usually have elongated nuclei. This occurs on
highly absorptive surfaces such as the intestinal tract of most
animals.
4. Stratified squamous epithelium - consists of two to many layers
of cells adapted to withstand mild mechanical abrasion and
distortion. The skin of vertebrates contain the epithelium.
5. Transitional epithelium - a type of stratified epithelium
specialized to accommodate great stretching. This type of epithelium
occurs in the urinary tract and bladder of vertebrates.

2. Connective tissue
Connective tissue functions mainly to bind and support
other tissues.
Contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an
extracellular matrix.
Composed of relatively few cells, great many
extracellular fibers, and ground structure
Many of the fibers of connective tissue are composed of
collagen
Collagen - protein with great tensile strength
Types of connective tissue
Two kinds of connective tissue occur in vertebrates: loose and
dense connective tissue
1. Loose connective tissue - also called areolar connective tissue is
the packing material of the body that anchors blood vessels, nerves,
and body organs. It contains fibroblasts that synthesize the fibers
and ground substance of connective tissue and wandering
macrophages that phagocytize pathogens or damaged cells. The
different fibers include: collagen fibers and thin elastic fibers.
2. Dense connective tissue - forms tendons, ligaments, and fasciae,
this collagenous fibers are extremely long and tightly packed
together with little ground substance
3. Cartilage - is a semirigid form of connective tissue composed of a
firm matrix containing cells (chondrocytes) located in pockets called
lacumae and collagen nd/or elastic fibers
Example: hyaline cartilage
4. Bone - the strongest of vertebrate connective tissues, composed
of a calcified matrix containing alts organized around collagen fibers.
Small pockets within the matrix contain bone cells called osteocytes.
This osteocyes communicate with each other by means of tiny
network of channels called canaticall.
3. Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue is composed of long cells called muscle fibers
capable of contracting in response to nerve signals.
Smooth
Skeletal
Cardiac
It originates from the mesoderm and its unit is called the
muscle cell or fiber specialized in contraction
Striated muscle appears transversely stripped
Types of Muscle tissue
Two types of striated muscles: skeletal and cardiac muscles
1. Skeletal - composed of extremely long cylindrical fibers which
are multinucleate cells that may reach from one end of the whole
muscle to the other. They are voluntary muscle because it contracts
when stimulated under conscious central nervous system control.
(attached to bones or tendons)
2. Cardiac - found only in the vertebrate heart. The cells are much
shorter than those of skeletal muscle and have only one nucleus
per cell. Cardiac muscle tissue is a branching of a network of
fibers with individual cells interconnected by junctional complexes Body Cavities and Germ Layers
called intercalated discs. It is an involuntary muscle
Examples of body cavities include the gut, blastocoel, and a
3. Smooth - lacks the characteristic alternating bands of the pseudocoel or coelom.
striated type occurs in both invertebrate and vertebrate. These are The gut forms from the archenteron during gastrulation.
long and tapering each containing a single central nucleus. It The blastocoel persists in some, but usually fills with
serves as body wall musculature and surrounds ducts and mesoderm.
sphincters. Surrounds the blood vessels and internal organs such Pseudocoel and coelom are fluid filled body cavities that
as intestine and uterus. It is an involuntary muscle in vertebrates. cushion organs and provide support.
(this can be found in intestines and uterus)
Germ Layers

Diploblastic organization
Ectoderm (outer cellular layer)
Endoderm (inner cellular layer)
Mesoglea (middle, noncellular)
Radially symmetrical animals

4. Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals

throughout the animal.
Two basic types of cells in nervous tissue are neurons, the
basic functional unit of nervous system and neuroglia, a
nonneuronal cell type that insulates neuron membrane and
serves various supportive functions
A neuron (nerve cell) receives signals at the dendrites
and send them out via the axons.

Triploblastic Organization

With three germ layers : ectoderm, mesoderm and

endoderm
mesoderm found between ectoderm and endoderm
Supportive, contractile, and blood cells

Advantage of having body cavities

Organ development
Surface area for diffusion of gases, nutrients, wastes
Storage
Often act as hydrostatic skeletons
Elimination of wastes and reproductive products
Facilitate increased body size

Types of Triploblastic Body Plans

Triploblastic acoelomate
Mesoderm forms solid mass
No body cavity
 Triploblastic pseudocoelomate
Body cavity not entirely lined by mesoderm
Gut is not associated with muscle or
connective tissue
body cavity between endoderm &
mesoderm
Triploblastic coelomate
Body cavity completely surrounded by
mesoderm
Mesenteries suspend visceral structures in body cavity
Body cavity surrounded by mesoderm
Body Cavities
Coeloms surrounded by mesoderm can arise in two ways:
Schizocoely mesodermal cells fill the blastocoel,
forming a solid band of tissue around the gut, then a space
opens inside the mesodermal band.
Enterocoely portions of the gut lining form pockets
that pinch off and form a ring of mesoderm.
Other Key Features of Body Plans
In some organisms, the gut does not form a complete tube.
Food must enter and exit the same opening.
Food must be digested & waste expelled before eating
again.
A complete gut forms a gut tube within another body tube.
A one way flow of food from mouth to anus.
Segmentation is a serial repetition of similar body segments
along the body.
Each segment is a metamere or somite.
May include external & internal components.
Permits greater body mobility and complexity of structure
& function.
Reproductive Process
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction - one of the must ubiquitous properties of life
Evolution - inextricably linked to reproduction because the
ceaseless replacement of predecessors with new life gave
animal populations the means today to a changing environment
TWO MODES OF REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction - the production of offspring whose
genes all come from one parent without the fusion of egg and
sperm
Usually diploid eggs are produced by mitosis which then
develop directly
There is only one parent with no special reproductive organs
or cells, each organism can produce genetically identical
copies of itself as soon as it becomes an adult
attaining sexual maturity.
Appears in bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes and in may
invertebrate phyla, such as cnidarians, bryozoans, annelids,
echinoderms, and hemichordates
Sexual Reproduction - involves two parents and the joining of
male and female gametes (eggs and sperms) during
fertilization
The production of offspring by the fusion of haploid
gametes (eggs and sperms) from two parents to form a
diploid zygote (fertilized egg)
The zygote formed from this union receives genetic
material from both parents, and the combination of genes
produces a genetically unique individual, bearing
characteristics of the species but also bearing traits that
distinguish it from parents
Dioecious
Gametes arise by meiosis
Genetic variability is increased by the random
combinations of genes from the parents
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Types of asexual reproduction
a) Binary fission divides the body into two equal parts,
each grows into an individual similar to the parent.
Occurs mostly in bacteria and protozoa.
b) Budding is a form of asexual reproduction where new
individuals form as offshoots of a parent.The offspring
may separate or remain attached to form colonies.
the formation of new individual as an outgrowth
(bud) from a parent, develops like those of the
parent and then detaches itself.
Common among bacteria and protozoa or
unicellular eukaryotes
Example: Paramecium
Example: a bud arises from the parent hydra
which upon maturation detaches from the parent
body to become a new individual.
c) Fragmentation
broken down into several pieces and each piece grows
into a new organism. Reproduction through
fragmentation is observed in some sponges and
cnidarians
Sea stars can regenerate lost limbs, but only
species in the genus Linckia can form new
individuals from broken arms.
Regeneration is the regrowth of lost body parts
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Only a single parent is required. Animals living far from
members of their own species can reproduce without having
to search for a mate.
Numerous offspring quickly ideal for colonizing a new area.
Advantageous in a stable, favorable environment because it
reproduces a successful genotype precisely.
DISADVANVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
It does not lead to variation in a population
Disease may affect all the individuals in a population
The species may only be suited to one habitat
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the production of individuals from
gametes. It involves two parents. A zygote is formed by the
union of egg and sperm.
Hermaphroditism and parthenogenesis are less common
forms of sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction recombines parental characters
Results to a richer and more diversified population
DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The costs of sexual reproduction are greater than asexual
methods
More complicated
Requires more time
Uses more energy
ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual organisms produce more novel genotypes (increases
variability) to survive in times of environmental change
In crowded habitats, selection is intense and diversity
prevents extinction. On a geological time scale, sexual
lineage with less variation are prone to extinction
Many invertebrates with both sexual and asexual modes enjoy
the advantages of both (e.g. earthworm, tapeworm)
Sexual reproduction has costs including finding mates, greater
energy costs, reduced proportion of genes passed on to
offspring and slower population growth
However, sexual reproduction increases variability in the
population - important during times of environmental change
PARTHENOGENESIS (virgin birth)
Involves the development of an embryo from an unfertilized
egg or one where sperm & egg nuclei did not fuse. It is difficult
to classify parthenogenesis as either asexual or sexual
reproduction since, there are many different patterns.
Ameiotic parthenogenesis
no meiosis
egg is formed by mitosis (diploid).
offspring are clones of the parent
intact to offspring.
Example, in some fish species, a female produces
diploid eggs and may be fertilized by a male but the
material is rejected before it can penetrate the egg.
Meiotic parthenogenesis
haploid ovum formed by meiosis
it may be activated by a male (or not).
haploid egg development begins spontaneously;
males are not required to stimulate
activation of an ovum.
Some species of flatworms, annelids and insects,
In some animals (e.g. aphids, Daphnia) the females can
produce two types of eggs
One must be fertilized
One type will develop directly into haploid adults -
parthenogenesis
Daphinia reproduce asexually (parthenogenesis) when
conditions are favorable
In times of environmental stress, they utilize sexual
reproduction (Increases variation)
In many social insects, like honeybees, males (drones) are
haploid and are produced by parthenogenesis while female
(workers and queens) develop from fertilized eggs.
Some vertebrate animals such as lizards, snakes, fish, and
certain amphibians also reproduce through parthenogenesis.
After meiosis, the chromosomes are doubled, creating
diploid zygotes
Often mating behavior is required to stimulate development
of offspring
HERMAPHRODITISM (Monoecious)
Hermaphroditism occurs when an organism has both male and
female reproductive systems
Monoecious
Some can fertilize themselves but most avoid self-
fertilization by exchanging gametes with another member
of the same species
Common to sessile (non motile), burrowing, or parasitic
invertebrate animals like earthworms
FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is the fusion of egg and sperm into a single diploid
cell, the zygote
It can be external fertilization and internal fertilization
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 A wet environment is required so gametes do not dry
out and so sperm may swim to the eggs The three tissue layers produced by gastrulation are called
Environmental cues (day, length, temperature) or chemical embryonic germ layers.
cues may cause a whole population to release gametes at 1. The ectoderm forms the outer layer of the gastrula.
once a) outer surfaces, neural tissue
Increase likelihood of fertilization 2. The endoderm lines the embryonic digestive tract.
3. The mesoderm partly fills the space between the
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION endoderm and ectoderm.
Internal fertilization allows terrestrial animals to reproduce a) muscles, reproductive system
away from water Organogenesis
Cooperative behavior leading to copulation is required Various regions of the three embryonic germ layers
develop into the rudiments of organs during the process
PHEROMONES of organogenesis. Many different structures are derived
Pheromones are chemical signals released into the from the three embryonic germ layers during
environment by one organism that influence the physiology organogenesis.
or behavior of members of the same species Growth
Effective in very small amounts Refers both to the overall increase of size of the organism,
Mate attractants and to the control of proportion between body parts.
Organs increase in size
ENSURING SURVIVAL OF OFFSPRING adult body form attained
Species of external fertilization produce huge quantities of
gametes that result in lots of zygotes. Taxonomy Classification
Predation on young is high
Few will survive to reproduce BIODIVERSITY
Species with internal fertilization produce fewer zygotes but
protect them more from predation 1.75 million identified species
Tough eggshells Insects - 950,000 species
Embryo may develop in reproductive tract of female Plants - 270,000 species
Parental care of eggs and offspring Fiah - 19,000 species
Birds - 9,000 species
REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS IN ANIMALS: EGG DEVELOPMENT Mammals - 4,000 species
Approximately 8.5 million species on Earth
1. Oviparous
a) animals that lay eggs. SPECIES
b) most invertebrates, many vertebrates Species is a group of population whose members have the
2. Ovoviviparous potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile
a) animals that retain the eggs within their bodies. offspring, but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with
b) Nourishment comes from the egg. members of other such groups
c) some annelids, insects, some fishes, reptiles.
3. Viviparous SYSTEMATICS
a) eggs develop in oviduct or uterus, nourishment from Studies diversification of organisms and the determination of
mother. their evolutionary relationships
b) mammals, some sharks, scorpions.
TAXONOMY
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT (Key Events in Development) A scientific naming of organisms, grouping and classifying with
reference to their exact position in the kingdoms of life
Gametogenesis classification- grouping of organisms that possess a common
Formation and maturation of gametes (sperm and ova) feature called an essence
Fertilization
Fertilization is the initial event in development in sexual TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS
reproduction. In this event, the haploid genomes from Taxonomy and Systematics are the study of the kinds and
the mother and father fused in one nucleus thus, diversity of living forms and the evolutionary relationships
restoring the original diploid number of chromosomes. among them
Cleavage
Cleavage is the rapid cell divisions following fertilization. TAXONOMY KEY
The embryo divides repeatedly, creating blastomeres. Taxonomic key is a tool used to identify an organism; consists
No growth occurs during this period, only subdivision of information regarding the species
of mass, which continues until normal somatic cell size Example: dichotomous key
is attained. At the end of cleavage, the zygote has been
divided into many hundreds or thousands of cells and LINNAEUS AND CLASSIFICATION
the blastula stage is formed.
Gastrulation Carolus Linnaeus designed our hierarchical classification
The process of gastrulation rearranges the cells of a scheme
blastula into a three-layered (triploblastic) embryo, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
called a gastrula that has a primitive gut. Diploblastic
organisms have two germ layers.
LINNAEUS AND TAXONOMY

Binomial nomenclature is the system Linnaeus used for

naming species
Genus and species
Names are latinized and italicized, only the genus
is capitalized
Example: Sitta carolinensis
A trinomial name includes a subspecies epithet
Scudderia furcata furcata
Canis lupus familiaris
C.I. familiaris

LINNAEUS SYSTEM OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

No two animals have the same binomial
Every animal has only one correct name
Humans are named Homo sapiens which is
abbreviated H. sapiens
DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS OF CHORDATES
All chordates share a set of unique characteristics
Some species have some of these traits only during
embryonic development
Key characteristics of chordates:
Notochord
Dorsal, hollow nerve chord
Pharyngeal slits
Endostyle
Post anal tail

LANCELETS (CEPHALOCHORDATA)
are named for their bladelike shape
They are marine suspension feeders that retain
characteristics of the chordate body plan as adults

THE FISHES: VERTEBRATE SUCCESS IN WATER

Fishes are included in the subphylum Craniata (Phylum
Chordata)
Craniates have skull that surrounds the brain, olfactory
organs, eyes, and inner ear
Subphylum Craniata have two infraphyla:
Infraphylum Hyperotreti (includes the hagfishes)
Infraphylum Vertebrata

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING FISHES

1. Subphylum Craniata skull surrounds the three part brain,
olfactory organs, eyes, and inner ear. Unique embryonic tissue,
neural crest, contributes to a variety of adult structures, including
sensory nerve cells and some skeletal and other connective
tissue structures.
a. Infraphylum Hyperotreti fishlike; skull consisting of
cartilaginous bars; jawless; no paired appendages; mouth
with four pairs of tentacles; olfactory sacs open to mouth
TUNICATES (UROCHORDATA) cavity; 5 to 15 pairs of pharyngeal slits; ventrolateral slime
are more closely related to other chordates than are glans. Hagfishes
lancelets b. Infraphylum Vertebrata Vertebrae surround nerve cord
They are marine suspension feeders commonly called sea and serve as primary axial support
squirts i. Superclass Petromyzontomorphi A large, sucker-like
As an adult, a tunicate draws in water through an incurrent mouth, reinforced by cartilage. Gill arches with spine-
siphon, filtering food particles shaped processes
Tunicates most resemble chordates during their larval stage, Class Petromyzontida Sucking mouth with
which may last only a few minutes teeth and rasping tongue; seven pairs of
pharyngeal slits; blind; olfactory sacs. Lampreys

ii. Superclass Gnathostomata Hinged jaws and paired.

Appendages; vertebral column may have replaced
notochord; three semicircular canals
Class Chondrichthyes Tail fin with large upper
lobe (heterocercal tail); cartilaginous skeleton;
lack opercula and a swim bladder or lungs.
Sharks, skates, rays, ratfishes
Subclass Elasmobranchii Cartilaginous
skeleton may be partially ossified; placoid
scales or no scales. Sharks, skates, rays
Subclass Holocephali Operculum covers
THE ORIGIN OF CRANIATES pharyngeal slits; lack scales; teeth modified
Fossils from the Cambrian explosion 530 million years ago into crushing plates; lateral line receptors
document the transition to craniates in an open groove. Ratfishes
The most primitive of the fossils are those of the 3cm long Class Actinopterygii Paired fins supported by
Haikouella deral rays basal portions of paired fins not
Haikouella had a well formed brain, eyes, and, muscular especially muscular; tail fin with approximately
segments, but not a skull equal upper and lower lobes (homocercal tail);
 blind olfactory sacs; pneumatic sacs function as
swim bladders. Ray-finned fishes
Class Sarcopterygii Paired fins with muscular
lobe, pneumatic sacs function as lungs, atria and
ventricles at least partly divided. Lungfishes,
coelacanths, and tetrapodomorphs, including
tetrapods
HAGFISHES
The least derived surviving craniate lineage is Myxini, the
hagfishes
Hagfishes have a cartilaginous skull and axial rod of cartilage
derived from the notochord, but lack jaws and vertebrae
CHONDRICHTHYANS (SHARKS, RAYS, AND THEIR RELATIVES)
Chondrichthyans (Chondrichthyes) have a skeleton composed
primarily of cartilage
The cartilaginous skeleton evolved secondarily from an ancestral
mineralized skeleton
The largest and most diverse group of chondrichthyans includes
the sharks, rays, and skates (Subclass Elasmobranchii)
A second subclass is composed of a few dozen species of
ratfishes (Subclass Holocephali)

LAMPREYS
Lampreys (Petromyzontida) represent the oldest living lineage
of vertebrates
They are jawless vertebrates inhabiting various marine and
freshwater habitats
They have cartilaginous segments surrounding the notochord
and arching partly over the nerve cord

EARLY VERTEBRATES FOSSIL

Conodonts were the first vertebrates with mineralized skeletal
elements in their mouth and pharynx
Other armored, jawless vertebrates had defensive plates of bone
on their skin
SHARKS
Have a streamlined body and are swift swimmers
Are carnivores
Have a short digestive tract; a ridge called the spiral valve
increases the digestive surface area
Shark eggs are fertilized internally but embryos can develop in
different ways:
Oviparous
Ovoviviparous: the embryo develops within the uterus and
is nourished by the egg yolk
Viviparous: the embryo develops within the uterus and is
nourished through a yolk sac placenta from the
blood

Today, jawed vertebrates, or gnathostomes, outnumber jawless

vertebrates
Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws

DERIVED CHARACTERS OF GNATHOSTOMES

Gnathostomes have jaws that might have evolved from skeletal
supports of the pharyngeal slit

RAY-FINNED FISHES AND LOBE FINS

Other characters common to gnathostomes:
An enlarged forebrain associated with enhanced smell and
vision
In aquatic gnathostomes, the lateral line system, which is
sensitive to vibrations
The earliest gnathostomes in the fossil record are an extinct
lineage of armored vertebrates called placoderms
The vast majority of vertebrates belong to a clade of
gnathostomes called Osteichthyes
Osteichthyes includes the bony fish and tetrapods
Nearly all living osteichthyans have a bony endoskeleton
Aquatic osteichthyans are the vertebrates we informally call
fishes
Most fishes breathe by drawing water over gills protected by
an operculum
Fishes control their buoyancy with an air sac known as a swim
bladder
RAY-FINNED FISHES
Class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes, includes nearly all
the familiar aquatic osteichthyans
The fins, supported mainly by long, flexible rays, are modified for
maneuvering, defense, and other functions

LOBE-FINNED FISHES
The lobe-fins (Sarcopterygii) have muscular pelvic and pectoral
fins
Three lineages survive and include coelacanths, lungfishes, and
tetrapods
Phylum Chordata
Phylum Chordata

By the end of the Cambrian period, 540

million years ago, an astonishing variety

One of these types of animals gave rise

to vertebrates, one of the most
successful groups of animals.
Phylum Chordata

Chordates are bilaterian animals that

are known as Deuterostomia.
Two groups of invertebrate
deuterostomes, the urochordates and
cephalochordates are more closely
related to vertebrates than to
invertebrates.
Phylum Chordata (General Characteristics)

Chordates have:
Bilaterally symmetrical
A unique combination of 5 characteristics:
notochord, pharyngeal slits or pouches, dorsal tubular
nerve cord, postanal tail, endostyle or thyroid gland
Complete digestive tract
Ventral, contractile blood vessel (heart)
 Endo style / Thyroid gland Vertebral a -

General characteristics food

•

secretes mucus that trap

.

get their names from vertebrae

bilaterally symmetrical ↳ vertebrae of bones that

particles is series make
•
a

•
combination of 5 characteristics : . found in urochordates
/ cephalochordates up the backbone
i. notochord o
iodinatcd proteins .
52000 ( mammals
,
reptiles ,
amphibians
,
birds ,

dorsal tubular chord to fishes )

homologous iodinated hormone
secreting
2.
•

nerve

3.
pharyngeal pouches
slits or
thyroid gland
endostyle / thyroid Craniates
4.
gland
s .

post anal tail Post anal tail •

vertebrates that have a head
•

complete digestive tract .

provide motility in larval tunicates and •
the head opened a new
way
of
feeding called
•
ventral ,
contractile blood vessel lancelets / amphioxus active predation
•
cause propulsion in water .
share common characteristics :

Notochord •
in humans
coccyx skull ,
brain
, eyes ,
and other sensory organs
rod like structure
•
flexible ,
•
derived from mesoderm Urochordates Endoskeleton
•
first part of the endoskeleton to
-

found in all seas •

muscle attachment

manifest during the embryonic stage sessile highly specialized adults endoskeleton made of cartilage bone
•

as or
o -

replaced by vertebrae feed cranium the brain

using : to protect
• •
.

place for muscle attachment pharyngeal slits vertebrae protect the spinal chord
• -
• •

net secreted
by endostyk
•

mucus

Dorsal tubular nerve chord Origin of Vertebrates

dorsal to the canal cephalochordates 530 million during the Cambrian
alimentary
•

yrs ago
•

•
a tube •
lancelets / amphioxus explosion
•

enlarged part develops as the brain

•
feed using : •

Pikaia -

cephalochordate
between the vertebral Column pharyngeal slits Haikouella primitive early vertebrate
•
•

in . -

vertebrates mucus net

by endostyte with eyes and nose skull
-

no
.

nerve chord lies above notochord .

transition between cephalochordates and

closed but there
Pharyngeal slits
circulatory system is vertebrates
.

from is no heart of vertebrates

openings lead pharyngeal cavity to sister taxon
• •

the outside •

blood functions for nutrient transport

°

Haikouohthys
•
forms when pharyngeal pouches and -

segmented trunk musculature shared characteristic •

skull present
pharyngeal to vertebrates
groove meet to form an
opening
•
develop to the filter feeding apparatus to -

amphioxus descendant of vertebrates and

internal gills used in respiration . cephalochordates
 Walter Gast rang 1928 ,

•
tadpole larvae led to vertebrates
.

they failed to metamorphose into

adult form
•
Paedo morphosis

ammo coete -
larval stage of lampreys

ostracoderms ( armored jawless fishes)

•

heteros traeans

osteostracans
-

Anaspids

conodonts ( amphioxus) have greater

cephalization

agnathans ( vertebrates lacking jaws)

Gnathas tomes (jawed vertebrates)
Phylum Chordata

Five distinctive characteristics define the

chordates:
Notochord
Dorsal tubular nerve cord
Pharyngeal pouches (gill slits)
Endostyle
Postanal tail
All are found at least at some embryonic
stage in all chordates, although they may
later be lost.
Notochord
The notochord is a flexible, rod-like structure derived
from mesoderm.
The first part of the endoskeleton to appear in an embryo.
Place for muscle attachment.
In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by the vertebrae.
-

Remains of the notochord may persist between the

vertebrae.
Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord
In chordates, the nerve cord is dorsal to the
alimentary canal and is a tube.
The anterior end becomes enlarged to form the brain.
Protected by the vertebral column in vertebrates.
Pharyngeal Pouches and Slits
Pharyngeal slits are openings that lead from the
pharyngeal cavity to the outside. They are formed when
pharyngeal grooves and pharyngeal pouches meet to
form an opening.
Pharyngeal Pouches and Slits
The perforated pharynx evolved as a filter
feeding apparatus.
Later, they were modified into internal gills
used for respiration.
Endostyle or Thyroid Gland
The endostyle in the pharyngeal floor, secretes mucus
that traps food particles.
Found in Urochordates and cephalochordates
Secretes iodinated proteins.
Homologous to the iodinated-hormone-secreting thyroid
gland in adult lampreys and other vertebrates.
Postanal Tail
The postanal tail, along with somatic musculature
and the stiffening notochord, provides motility in larval
tunicates and amphioxus.
Evolved for propulsion in water.
Reduced to the coccyx (tail bone) in humans.
Phylum Chordata

Two protochordate subphyla

Subphylum Urochordata
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Subphylum Urochordata

Tunicates (subphylum Urochordata) are

found in all seas.
Most are sessile and highly specialized as
adults.

* sessile -

fixed in one

place
Subphylum Urochordata

Tunicates filter feed

using the pharyngeal
slits and a mucous net
secreted by the
endostyle.
Subphylum Cephalochordata

Cephalochordates are the lancelets, also

called amphioxus.
Subphylum Cephalochordata

All five chordate characters are present

in a simple form.
Filter feeding is accomplished using
pharyngeal slits and a mucous net
secreted by the endostyle.
Subphylum Cephalochordata

The dorsal, hollow nerve cord lies just

above the notochord.
The circulatory system is closed, but
there is no heart.
Blood functions in nutrient transport, not
oxygen transport.
Segmented trunk musculature is
another feature shared with vertebrates.
Subphylum Cephalochordata

Many zoologists consider amphioxus a

living descendant of ancestors that gave
rise to both cephalochordates and
vertebrates
Would make them the living sister group of
the vertebrates
Subphylum Vertebrata

Subphylum Vertebrata shares the basic

chordate characteristics with the
urochordates and cephalochordates.
Subphylum Vertebrata
The animals called vertebrates get their name
from vertebrae, the series of bones that make
up the backbone.
Subphylum Vertebrata

There are approximately 52,000 species

of vertebrates which include the largest
organisms ever to live on the Earth.
Fishes
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Subphylum Vertebrata = Craniata

Craniates are chordates that have a

head.
The origin of a head opened up a
completely new way of feeding for
chordates: active predation.
Craniates share some common
characteristics:
A skull, brain, eyes, and other sensory
organs.
Endoskeleton

Vertebrates have an endoskeleton

made of cartilage or bone.
All have a cranium to protect the brain.
Almost all have vertebrae to protect the
spinal cord.
Important for muscle attachment.
The Origin of Vertebrates

Vertebrates evolved at least 530 million years

ago, during the Cambrian explosion.
Pikaia was an early chordate discovered in the
Burgess Shale.
Cephalochordate

burgess shale -
fossil

bvarinq deposit
The Origin of Vertebrates

The most primitive of the

early vertebrate fossils
are those of the 3-cm-
long Haikouella.
Eyes and brain present,
but no skull.
It is transitional in
morphology between
cephalochordates and
vertebrates
Some hypothesize
Haikouella is the sister
taxon of vertebrates.
The Origin of Vertebrates

In other Cambrian
rocks,
paleontologists have
found fossils of even
more advanced
chordates, such as
Haikouichthys.
Skull present.
The Earliest Vertebrates
In 1928, Walter
Garstang proposed that
the tadpole larvae of
tunicates may have led
to early vertebrates.
The larva may have
failed to metamorphose
into an adult tunicate.
Paedomorphosis
retention of larval traits
in an adult body.
Ammocoete Larva of Lampreys

Lampreys have a freshwater larval stage, the

ammocoete, that resembles amphioxus.
Filter feeders
Closely approaches ancestral body plan.
The Earliest Vertebrates
Other early vertebrate fossils include the armored
jawless fishes called ostracoderms from the late
Cambrian.
Heterostracans had dermal armor, but lacked paired
fins.
Osteostracans had paired pectoral fins as well as
dermal armor.
Anaspids were more agile and streamlined.
The Earliest Vertebrates

Conodonts resemble amphioxus, but have

greater cephalization.
The Earliest Vertebrates
Vertebrates lacking jaws are known as agnathans.
Gnathostomes refers to the jawed vertebrates, both living and extinct.
Jaws arose from modifications to the first and second gill arches.
Mandibular arch may have first become enlarged to assist gill
ventilation - perhaps to meet increasing metabolic demands of
early vertebrates.
Subphylum Urochordata

Feeding and
digestion
Ciliary-mucous

I
mechanism
Endostyle secretes
mucous sheet
Digestive waste
exits with excurrent
water
w movement of cilia causes the
current of water to drawn inside

the animal in the water are

, organisms
filtered by the cilia
Subphylum Urochordata
Reproduction and development
Monoecious
Cross-fertilization is the rule
External fertilization or within
atrium
Tadpole-like larva settles and
undergoes metamorphosis
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Feeding and digestion
Filter feeding
Ciliated gill bars create
water currents
Cirri sort food
Endostyle secretes mucus
that traps food on gill bars
Transported to gut
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Subphylum Urochordata
Reproduction and development
Dioecious
Gametes shed into atrium and exit via
atriopore
External fertilization
Free-swimming larvae settle and
metamorphose to adults
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AMPHIBIANS
CHORDATES: AMPHIBIANS External structure and locomotion
Skin
THE ORIGINS OF TETRAPODS Keratin deposits may produce warts, claws,
In one lineage of lobe-fins, the fins became or other hardened structures.
progressively more limb-like while the rest of the body Glands
retained adaptations for aquatic life o Granular glands noxious or toxic
For example, Acanthostega lived in Greenland 365 secretions
o Mucous glands prevent drying
million years ago
Chromatophores cells that produce color
Extraordinary fossil discoveries over the past 20 years
o Color and color changes efficient in camouflage
have allowed paleontologists to reconstruct the origin of
Support and movement
tetrapods
Skull
most of the early tetrapods probably remained tied to
Flattened and has fewer bony elements than
water, a characteristics they share with other members
fish
of the group of living tetrapods called amphibians
Jaw structure and musculature modified for
capturing and holding prey.
tetrapods
Vertebral column provides support &
•

four limbed animals

flexibility on land
Sternum - Supports forelimbs and protects
internal organs
Pelvic girdle contacts the sacrum and support
-

hind limbs

Acanthostega, a devonian relative of tetrapods

AMPHIBIANS (CLASS AMPHIBIA)

are represented by about 6,150 species of organisms in
three orders
Order Urodela (Caudata) includes salamanders,
which have tails
-

Order Anura (Salientia) includes frogs and toads,

which lack tails
Order Apoda (Gymnophiona or Caecilia) includes
Gas exchange
caecilians, which are legless and resemble worms
Cutaneous respiration
metamorphosis of an aquatic larva into a terrestrial adult Highly vascular skin promotes gas exchange
(30 90 % of salamander respiration).
Most amphibians have moist skin that complements the
Cutaneous respiration takes place all the
lungs in gas exchange time, whether frog is in or out of water.
Fertilization is external in most species, and the eggs When the frog is under water or hibernating,
require a moist environment it is the only mode of respiration.
There is rich supply of blood in the skin and
it is permeable to gases.
Oxygen must first dissolve in a moist
surface before it diffuses into blood.
This is also one of the reasons for frogs to
stay near water and keep their skin moist.
The mucus glands also secrete mucus so

Movement is not required in cutaneous

respiration as skin remains exposed to air or
water.
Buccopharyngeal respiration
Moist surfaces of mouth and pharynx (1
7 %)
amplexus -

mating of frogs
 In buccal respiration on land, the mouth Live in moist forest floor litter with aquatic
stays permanently closed while the nostrils larvae
remain open. Aquatic
The floor of the buccal cavity is alternately Newts (Salamandridae)
raised and lowered.
Most of their lives in water, may retain
It allows the air to be drawn into and
expelled out of the buccal cavity repeatedly caudal fin
through the open nostrils. Internal fertilization using spermatophore
The glottis remains closed during buccal Larvae with external gills, tail fin, larval
respiration. It is done so that no air enters dentition, and a rudimentary tongue retention of
or leaves the lungs into buccal cavity.
The mucus epithelial lining of buccal cavity ✓
Some paedomorphic (e.g., Necturus) larval traits
Order Anura or Salientia
is rich in blood capillaries which absorbs
Frogs and toads
O2 in the air and gives out CO2.
Adults lack tails, caudal vertebrae fuse into
Pulmonary
urostyle, hindlimbs long, muscular and end in
Buccal pump mechanism creates positive
pressure air is forced in the throat webbed feet.
The breathing that takes place on land in the Fertilization external
atmospheric air by the help of lungs is Eggs and larvae (tadpoles) aquatic
termed as pulmonary respiration. Larvae are herbivores
In case of frogs, the lungs are poorly Order Apoda (Gymnophiona or Caecilia)
developed. Caecilians
Thus, the insufficient supply of O2 obtained
Tropical burrowers feeding on soil invertebrates
through lungs is supplemented by the moist
Appear segmented because of skin folds
skin and buccal cavity.
Larvae and some adults use external gills. Fertilization internal
Larval stages within oviducts

AMPHIBIANS IN PERIL
One-third of amphibian species threatened with
extinction.
Water and airborne pollutants quickly penetrate thin
permeable skin
Threats
Clear-cutting forests and development
Chytrid fungus
@Online Biology Notes Climate change
Conservation
Reproduction, development, and metamorphosis Population monitoring
Dioecious separate genitals Collecting restrictions
Fertilization usually external Wetland conservation
Development usually in water Climate-change reversal
Courtship
Salamanders - Olfactory and visual cues
Anurans - Tactile and auditory cues
Vocalization
Male anurans
Attract females to breeding areas
Establish breeding territories
Species specific
Nutrition and the digestive system
Carnivores as adults
Herbivores as larvae
Prey capture
Flip and grab feeding toad

THREE ORDERS UNDER THE CLASS AMPHIBIA

Order Urodela
Salamanders
Tail throughout life, unspecialized legs
Terrestrial
 REPTILES REPTILES
Class Reptilia includes the tuataras, lizards, snakes, turtles,
crocodijans,
Pi birds, and the extinct dinosaurs
Reptiles have scales that create a waterproof barrier
AMNIOTES They lay shelled eggs on land.
Amniotes are a group of tetrapods whose living members are
the reptiles, including birds, and mammals. CHARACTERISTICS OF REPTILES
External structure and locomotion
DERIVED CHARCTERS OF AMNIOTES Skin
Amniotes are named for themajor derived character of the Thick, dry, and keratinized; no respiratory
clade the amniotic egg, which contains membranes that functions
protect the embryo Scales may be modified
The extraembryonic membrane are the amnion, chorion, yolk
sac, and allantois Support and movement
(
Epidermal layers shed through ecdysis shedding old
skin )
Amniotic eggs Skeleton highly ossified ( bone or
bony)
Extraembryonic membrane Skull with secondary palate (divides nasal cavity to oral)
Protect emmbryo from dessication ( drying out ) Additional cervical vertebrae (including atlas and
Cushion embryo axis)
Promote gas transfer Two or more sacral vertebrae attach the pelvic
Store waste girdle to the vertebral column
Nutrition and the digestive system
Most are carnivores
Turtles can be carnivores, herbivores, or
omnivores depending on the species
Tongues
Nonprotrusible (not capable of being extended)
amnion membrane
-

forminga fluid filled

-
o Turtles and crocodilians
cavity that encloses the embryo cushion
, Protrusibile ( can be extended)
chorion -
outermost membrane of the embryo o Lizards and tuatara
yolk sac membranous sac attached to the
-

Feeding adaptations of snakes

yolk supplies food o Bones of the skull and upper jaw are
,

allantois extension of the yolk serves

moveable
sac ,
-

as the
respiratory organ of the Upper jaw also moveable on skull
yolk o Ligaments loosely join the halves of upper
and lower jaws anteriorly
o Posterior pointing teeth
o Glottis opens forward in mouth
Amniotes have other terrestial adaptations, such as relatively o Hinged maxillary bone in vipers
impermeableskin and the ability to use the rib cage to o Venom glands in some
ventilate the lungs Modified salivary glands
Circulation, gas exchange, and temperature regulation
EARLY AMNIOTES Heart
Amniote fossils document the divergence of two lineages: Two atria and incompletely divided ventricle
Synpsida synapside (except crocodilians)
Leads to mammals o Permits shunting blood away from
Single opening (fenestra) in temporal region of pulmonary circuit during intermittent
skull (anapsid skull) breathing
Diapsida Conus arteriosus and ventral aorta divide during
All living reptiles (including birds) and numerous embryological development into three major
extinct lineages arteries
Two openings (fenestra) in temporal region of Gas exchange
skull Internal respiratory surfaces
o Members of this group have upper and o Lungs spongelike
lower openings in the teporal region of the Large surface area for gas exchange
skull Negative pressure ventilation
o Posterior movement of ribs and body wall
expands body cavity.
Modified in turtles
Decreased body cavity pressure draws air into
lungs
Temperature Regulation
Most ectotherms ( dependent on external sources of heat)
Exception brooding Indian pythons.
Behavioral regulation
Orientation at right angles to sun's ray
Warming by conduction from warm surfaces
 Cooling by seeking shade or burrows, assuming Order Crocodylia
erect posture, and nocturnal habits Archosaur lineage
Physiological regulation Alligators, crocodiles, gavials, caimans
Panting Skull characteristics:
Diverting blood to skin while basking (marine openings in front of the eyes
iguana) triangular eye orbits
Reproduction and development laterally compressed teeth
Internal fertilization and amniotic egg makes Secondary palate - separates the nasal and mouth
development apart from external water sources passageways
possible (external organ of a male specialized
to Oviparous with parental care
Intromittent organ deliver sperm upon copulation ) Crocodilians (alligators and crocodiles) belong to an
Hemipenes ( paired male reproductive organs is snakes 2 lizards) archosaur lineage that dates back to the late Triassic.
Parthenogenesis ( reproduction without fertilization ) Order Sphenodontia (Rhynchocephalia)
Females only Lepidosauria lineage
A few lizards and snakes Tuataras
Courtship behaviors common Distinguished by skull features:
Eggs usually develop unattended by a parent A kinetic jaw-lower firmly attached to upper
American and a few others are exceptions two rows of teeth on upper jaw
single row of teeth in lower jaw
THE ORIGIN OF REPTILES (LINEAGES) Oviparous
The oldest reptilian fossils date to about 310 million years Example: American alligator
ago Order Squamata
The first major group to emerge were parareptiles, which Lepidosauria lineage
were mostly large herbivores Kinetic skull
The diapsids consisted of two main lineages: the Moveable quadrate bones and other skull
lepidosaurs and the archosaurs modifications
Two main lineages of diapsids: Increases skull flexibility
The lepidosaurs include tuataras, lizards, and snakes Suborder Sauria (lizards) and suborder Serpentes
The archosaur lineage produced the crocodilians, (snakes)
pterosaurs, and dinosaurs Suborder Sauria (lizards)
Dinosaurs, with the exception of birds, became extinct by o Usually two pairs of legs
the end of the Cretaceous o Upper and lower jaws unite anteriorly
Their extinction may have been partly caused by an asteroid o Oviparous, ovoviviparous, or viviparous
o Includes legless amphisbaenias
Lepidosaurs o Example: The gila monster (Heloderma
One surviving lineage of lepidosaurs is represented by two suspectrum) is a venomous lizard
species of lizard-like reptiles called tuataras Suborder Serpentes (snakes)
The other major living lineage of lepidosaurs consists of the o Legless
lizards and snakes. o Skull adaptions for swallowing large prey
Lizards are the most numerous and diverse reptiles, apart o Most oviparous, some give birth to live
from birds. young
Snakes are legless lepidosaurs that evolved from lizards

THE ORDERS UNDER THE CLASS REPTILIA

Order Testudines
Turtles Testa dines
Characterized by: turtles
bony shell
limbs articulate internally to ribs
keratinized beak rather than teeth
croeody liar
Shell
•
crocodiles
bony shell
Carapace (dorsal) and plastron (ventral) Sphenodontia
Oviparous •

tuataras

squamata
lizards ( Sanrio)
snakes (serpented
 MAMMALS echidnas
Proboscidea Long, muscular trunk; thick,
"Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk" Elephants loose skin;upper. Incisiors
elongated as tusks
DERIVED CHARACTERS OF MAMMALS Sirenia Aquatic; finlike forelimbs and
Mammals have Manatees, dugongs no hind imbs; herbivorous
Mammary glands, which produce milk
Marsupalia Embryo completes
Hair
Kangaroos, development in pouch on
A larger brain than other vertebrates of equivalent size
opossums, koalas mother
Differentiated teeth
Tubulidentata Teeth consisting of many thin
Aardvarks tubes cemented together; eats
EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS
ants and termites
Mammals evolved from synapsids in the late Triassic period
Hyracoidea Short legs; stumpy tail;
(251-200 mya)
Hyraxes, rock hyrax herbivorous; complex,
Two bones that formerly made up the jaw joint were
multichambered stomach
incorporated into the mammalian middle ear
-
Xenartha Reduced teeth or no teeth;
By the early Cretaceous periods, the three living lineages of
Sloths, anteaters, herbivorous. (sloths) or
mammals emerged
armadillos carnivorous (anteaters,
monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians
tamandua armadillos)
Mammals did not undergo a significant adaptive changes until
Legamorpha Chisel like incisors; hind legs
after the Cretaceous
Rabbits, hares, picas longer than forelegs and
adapted for running and.
TYPES OF MAMMALS
Jumping herbivorous
Monotremes
Monotremes are a small group of egg laying mammals Rodentia Chisel like, continously
consisting of echidnas and the platypus Squirrels, beavers, growing incisors worn down by
Monotremes are the most primitive mammals. These rats, porcupines, gnawing; herbivorouus
mammals lay eggs, after the babies hatch, the mothers mice
nourish their young with milk. Today,monotremes only Primates Opposablle thumbs; forward
live in Australia and New Guinea Lemurs, monkeys, facing eyes; well developed
There are three species of monotremes: duck billed chimpanees, gorillas, cerebral cortex; omnivorous
platypus and two spiny anteaters humans golden
Marsupials tamarin
Marsupials include opossums, kangaroos, and koalas Carnivora Shrp, pointed cnine. Teeth and
The embryo develops within a placenta in the mother's Dogs, wolves, bears, molars for shearing carnivorous
uterus cats, weasels, otters,
A marsupial is born very early in its development seals, walruses -
It completes its embryonic development while nursing in a coyote
maternal pouch called a marsupium Cetartiodactyla Hoooves with an even number
In some species, such as the bandicoot, the marsupium Artiodctyls Artiodactyls of toes on each foot;
opens to the rear of the mother's body Sheep, pigs, cattle, herbivorous
Marsupials are pouched mammals whose babies re born deer, giraffes
in a very underdeveloped state. The young attach bighorn sheep
themselves to their mother. Many marsupialls have a
pouch that encloses the young Cetaceans Aqutic; streamlined. Body;
The biggest is the human sized red kangaroo Whales, dolphins, paddle-like forelimbs and no
The smallest is the pilbara, it would fit in a persons hand porpoises Pacific hindimbs; thick layer of
Eutherians (Placental Mammals) white- sided porpoise insulting bubber; carnivorous
Compared with marsupials, eutherians have a longer
period of pregnancy
Young eutherians complete their embryonic development PRIMATES
within a uterus, joined to the mother by the placenta The mammalian order Primates includes lemurs, tarsiers,
(placental mammals) monkeys, and apes
Placental mammals are advanced mammals whose young Humans are members of the ape group
are born at an advanced stage.
Before birth, the young are nourished through. Placent. DERIVED CHARACTERS OF PRIMATES
The placenta is attached to the mthe Most primates have hands and feet adapted for grasping
delivers oxygen and nutrients to the young Other derived characters of primates:
Most mammals are placental mammals A large brain and short jaws
Forward-looking eyes close together on the face,
MAMMALIAN DIVERSITY providing depth perception
Complex social behavior and parental care
Orders and Examples Main Characteristics A fully opposable thumb (in monkeys and apes)
Monotremata Lay eggs; no nipples; young
Platypuses suck milk from fur of mother LIVING PRIMATES

There are three main groups of living primates:
Lemurs, lorises, and pottos
Tarsiers
Anthropoids (monkeys and apes)
The oldest known anthropoid fossils, about 45
million years old, indicate that tarsiers are more
closely related to anthropoids than to lemurs
The first monkeys evolved in the Old World (Africa and Asia)
In the New World (South America), monkeys first appeared
roughly 25 million years ago
New World and Old World monkeys underwent separate
adaptive radiations during their many millions of years of
separation
"Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal
locomotion."
The species Homo sapiens is about 200,000 years old, which is very
young, considering that life has existed on Earth for at least 3.5 billion
years
Homo ergaster fossils were previously assigned to Homo
erectus; most paleoanthropologists now recognize these as
separate species
Homo erectus originated in Africa by 1.8 million years ago
It was the first hominin to leave Africa
Homo sapiens appeared in Africa by 195,000 years ago
All living humans are descended from these African
ancestors
The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens outside Africa date back
about 115,000 years and are from the Middle East
Humans first arrived in the New World sometime before 15,000
years ago
In 2004, 18,000 year old fossils were found in Indonesia, and a
new small hominin was named: Homo floresiensis
↳ new small hominin
lemurs
frying

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF HUMANS lemurs lorises ,

pottos
A number of characters distinguish humans from other apes:
Upright posture and bipedal locomotion tarsiers
Larger brains
Language capabilities and symbolic thought
The manufacture and use of complex tools
anthropoids
Shortened jaw
Shorter digestive tract

THE EARLIEST HOMININS hominins

The study of human origins is known as paleoanthropology
Hominins (formerly called hominids) are more closely related to
6- 7 m ago
humans than to chimpanzees
Paleoanthropologists have discovered fossils of about 20 australopithecus
species of extinct hominins
Hominins originated in Africa about 6-7 million years ago y -
Z
Early hominins had a small brain but probably walked upright.
bipedalism
AUSTRALOPITHECUS
1. 9
Australopiths are hominins living between 4 and 2 million years
ago
Some species walked fully erect tool use
"Robust" australopiths had sturdy skulls and powerful jaws
2.5
"Gracile" australopiths were more slender and had lighter jaws

BIPEDALISM
Hominins began to walk long distances on two legs about 1.9 habilis
million years ago

TOOL USE evg aster

The oldest evidence of tool use, cut marks on animal bones, is
erectus
2.5 million years old

EARLY HOMO sapiens

The earliest fossils placed in our genus Homo are those of
tools Homo habilis, ranging in age from about 2.4 to 1.6 million years fhoresiensis
Stone tools have been found with H. habilis, giving this species
its name, which means "handy man"
bipedal Homo ergaster was the first fully bipedal, large-brained hominid
The species existed between 1.9 and 1.5 million years ago
Homo ergaster shows a significant decrease in sexual
dimorphism (a size difference between sexes) compared with
its ancestors
Urodelu
•
caudata monotremes
• salamanders
•
tailed echidna
Anura platypus
•

salientian
duck billed platypus
•

frog and toads two anteaters

spiny
•
lack tails
marsupials
Apodq
opposisume
Gnymnophiona
•

opossum
•
Caecilia
Kangaroos
•
caecilians koalas

legless worms
•

,
primate
lemurs

vertebral monkey
provides support
•
apes
humans
flexibility
sternum
•

forelimbs
-

internal organs
pelvic girdle
sairwr
-

•
hind Iims

external
gills
tail fin
larval dentition

rudimentary
tongue
clear
cutting
forests 2 alert
climate change

chytrid fungus
wetland conservation

collecting restriction
climate change
reversal
population
monitoring