Climate change risks to infrastructures: A
general perspective
Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 1977, 040030 (2018); [Link]
Published Online: 26 June 2018
Purwanti Sri Pudyastuti, and Nurmuntaha Agung Nugraha
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AIP Conference Proceedings 1977, 040030 (2018); [Link] 1977, 040030
© 2018 Author(s).
Climate Change Risks to Infrastructures: A General
Perspective
Purwanti Sri Pudyastuti1, a), and Nurmuntaha Agung Nugraha2
1
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Jl. A. Yani, Tromol
Pos 1, Pabelan, Kartasura 57102, Telp. 0271-717417, Indonesia
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Jl. A. Yani,
Tromol Pos 1, Pabelan, Kartasura 57102, Telp. 0271-717417, Indonesia
a)
Corresponding author: pspudyastuti@[Link]
Abstract. Infrastructure is planned with certain design life, and it is expected that the infrastructures can be useful during
the design life and sustainable. But in reality in the field, many infrastructures show unsatisfactory performance due to
several factors, both technical and non-technical factors. For example, many urban drainage networks cannot function
properly in conveying surface run-off because they are full of waste; or urban drainage networks cannot accommodate
surface runoff that occurs due to extreme rainfall that has never been predicted before; or broken road because vehicles
traveling through the road carry loads beyond the maximum planned and permitted load limits. In addition, extreme weather
events due to climate change will likely increase disruption to infrastructures. When infrastructures performance in a region
is disrupted, it will impact other sectors including economic and public health sectors. For example, when the drainage
network cannot accommodate surface runoff due to extreme rainfall, there will be a flood disaster that will disrupt economic
activity and cause many diseases (water borne diseases).This paper will outline a general perspective of the impact of
climate change on infrastructure in a regional system. The information described in this paper is based on the literature
study, and is expected to improve insight and knowledge to all stakeholders related to infrastructure management in
Indonesia.
INTRODUCTION
A region or city is a system that generally consists of social, physical, and environmental systems. The social
system includes all citizens, government systems, enforced regulations, and other social aspects. Meanwhile, the
physical system includes the existing infrastructure and the natural landscape of an area including rivers, swamps,
aquifer, beaches, lakes, and other landscapes. Biodiversity (flora and fauna) and its supporting ecosystem are included
in the environmental system.
The existing infrastructure, such as water infrastructure (drainage network, irrigation network, reservoirs, small
dams, dikes, water supply networks, checkdams, etc.); transportation infrastructure (highways, air ports, seaports,
etc.); energy supply infrastructure; telecommunication infrastructure; and buildings of public facilities including
hospitals, government buildings, schools, and so on, of a region varies. Fundamentally, infrastructure is built with the
aim to provide convenience and to improve the community welfare.
Infrastructure is planned with certain design life, and it is expected that it can be useful and sustainable during the
design life. But in the reality, many infrastructures show unsatisfactory performance due to several factors, both
technical and non-technical factors. For example, many urban drainage networks cannot function properly because
they are full of waste, urban drainage networks cannot accommodate surface runoff due to extreme rainfall that has
never been predicted before, or broken road due to numbers of vehicles carry loads beyond the maximum planned and
permitted load limits.
In addition, extreme weather events due to climate change will likely escalate the disruption of infrastructures.
When infrastructures performance of a region is disrupted, it will impact other sectors including the economic and
Human-Dedicated Sustainable Product and Process Design: Materials, Resources, and Energy
AIP Conf. Proc. 1977, 040030-1–040030-8; [Link]
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-1687-1/$30.00
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public health sectors. For example, when the drainage network cannot accommodate surface runoff due to extreme
rainfall, there will be flood that will disrupt economic activity and cause many diseases (water borne diseases).
This paper will outline a general perspective of the impact of climate change on infrastructure in a regional (or a
city) system. The information described in this paper is based on the library research, and is expected to improve the
insight and knowledge of all stakeholders related to the infrastructure management in Indonesia.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Infrastructure and Sustainability
Infrastructures are built in a region or city for many goals, including to provide easy access to the public facilities,
to improve the community health, to facilitate the distribution of various commodities, and so on. In modern society,
infrastructure is the main pillar of development. There are some important infrastructures in a region or city, such as
water infrastructure, transportation infrastructure, energy infrastructure, waste infrastructure (for liquid and solid
waste), building for public facilities (schools, hospitals, offices, shopping mall, etc.), and communication
infrastructures. Water infrastructure includes dams, irrigation networks, drainage networks, sewerage and municipal
water supply network. Railways, highways, ports, airports, and toll roads are the examples of transportation
infrastructure.
Sufficient provision of infrastructure and administration will promote economic growth and competitiveness.
Infrastructure will increase competition in the economic field as well as productivity [1]. Infrastructure is also principal
to improve the quality of life of the modern society. Infrastructure is the main pillar of modern society. Sustainable
development requires sustainable infrastructure. Furthermore, investment in infrastructure will increase economic
growth [2, 3]. Figure 1 shows the correlation between infrastructure and growth [1].
FIGURE 1. Correlation between infrastructure and growth.
(Source: Tomás, 2014)
In addition, infrastructure is essential to achieve a sustainable region or city. Sustainability, in fact, is a complex
and multifaceted issue [4]. Sustainability includes environmental sustainability, financial sustainability, and asset
sustainability. Development of a region or city will inevitably create both positive and negative impacts to the
environment. As an element of the development, the infrastructures construction process has released greenhouse
gases, which causes global warming and triggers climate change. Furthermore, urbanization also gives pressure to the
environment, mainly in the areas with water, waste, and energy resources. Nevertheless, infrastructures can play an
important role to diminish the negative impact of development contributing to climate change by applying intelligent
design of infrastructures. For example, the preferences of environmentally friendly material which release relatively
low carbon emission during the production process should be used in highway or building construction. It is inevitable
that the age of infrastructure is getting older. The population growth also gives pressure to the existing infrastructure,
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therefore some efforts must be done to ensure the infrastructure sustainability as the asset of a region or city. In
addition, long term costs of infrastructure assets must be consider in relation with their sustainability.
Climate Change Risks to Infrastructures
Global warming is defined as the rise of global temperature. The average global temperature of land and ocean has
increased during the last three decades and likely continues to increase [5]. The increase in temperature has caused
changes in rainfall and atmospheric moisture, which increase evaporation and water vapor. This condition causes more
intense rainfall, more storm, and sea level rise [6]. Furthermore, the average rate of sea level rise in recent decades
has been faster than the average rate in the last thousands years (7). Additionally, vital infrastructures for energy
supply, water supply, and transportation system are likely affected by climate change. Extreme weather and sea level
rise create new risks to the infrastructures.
In fact, extreme weather leads to negative impacts on transportation infrastructure, including on its physical
condition and the higher cost for operation and maintenance (8). Figure 2 shows the deteriorated road due to rain water
inundation in Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta. Furthermore, the increase in temperature will increase heat that reduce
the life of asphalt and increase the stress to bridges expansion joints.
Transportation system is essential to ensure the efficient distribution of food, energy, and trade, as well as to
facilitate workers and consumers in accessing jobs and markets. In addition, to ensure the electricity provision of a
region, energy production and distribution facilities must function appropriately. The physical damage to these
infrastructure systems and disruption of the services due to climate change will cause significant economic and human
losses. Extreme weathers lead to flooding will also weaken the structural support of bridges, increase sedimentation
rate in water infrastructure, and increase the risk of landslide or avalanche. Flooding also causes damage to significant
freight routes, deteriorate energy infrastructure, and cut the electricity off. In addition, flooding can also destruct the
water supply network and wastewater system. Public facilities, such as hospitals, schools, shopping malls and offices,
can also be damaged by flooding. Table 1 shows an example of matrix of potential climate change impacts for
transportation infrastructures. The matrix is a simple and clear way to identify the risks, and is useful for related
stakeholders to set up adaptation and mitigation strategies to climate change. Moreover, such matrix could be applied
for other infrastructures available in a region or city.
TABLE 1. Matrix of potential climate change impacts on transportation infrastructures [9]
Climate change Roads Railways Ports and Waterways Airports
Temperature x Rapid asphalt x Expansion and x Thermal expansion x Asphalt
change deterioration buckling of of bridge joints, deterioration on
x Substructure railway tracks paved surfaces runway
damage joints.
x Increase O&M
costs.
Precipitation x Increase x Increase flooding x Channel closure due x Travel disruption
change flooding of of stations to increased silt due to flooding
roadways deposition due to x Damage to airport
x Increase flooding infrastructure due
erosion x Reduce navigability to inundation
x Construction
damage
Sea level rise Permanent inundation of road, port, and airport infrastructure
Furthermore, climate change can damage the energy infrastructure, especially in extraction, generation and
transmission, which can diminish the efficiency and disturb the operation. Most of human activities require energy.
Agricultural sector, industries, households, electricity generation, transportation, and infrastructure construction also
require energy. The disruption of energy infrastructure can threaten many elements of development—which primarily
rely on energy.
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(a) (b)
FIGURE 2. Deteriorated roads in Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta (Source: [Link]
[Link]).
Climate change brings various impacts to water resources and its infrastructure [6]. Extreme weathers lead to
flooding and drought that influence the performance of water infrastructure, such as domestic water supply network,
wastewater system, irrigation system, and hydroelectric or micro-hydro system. During flooding, the water supply
system might be contaminated by pollutant and this condition could be disastrous for human health. During drought,
the performance of irrigation system and hydroelectric or micro-hydro system will be disrupted due to insufficient
water availability. Figure 3 illustrates how climate change affects the quality and quantity of water resources system.
FIGURE 3. The effect of climate change on the quality and quantity of water resources system [5].
Strategies to Reduce Negative Impact of Climate Change on Infrastructures
There are some strategies to reduce the hazardous impacts of climate change on infrastructure as described below:
1. Identify the types of existing infrastructure in the region or city, such as energy system infrastructure, water
infrastructure, transportation infrastructure, building infrastructure, and communication infrastructure.
2. Identify threats from climate change. They include an increase in temperature, flooding, drought, etc.
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3. Identify interdependencies among infrastructure systems. Some infrastructures are interconnected, for
example: highway is connected to the airport, underground fuel storage tanks, schools, hospitals, business
area, etc. When flood occurs, these infrastructures will be affected simultaneously, causing losses in various
sectors (tangible and intangible).
4. Search for adaptation solutions, for example by setting up regulations, finding suitable innovation and
technology, conducting capacity building (the acquisition of information and knowledge), enhancing
community participation, and improving communication and coordination among stakeholders.
Identification of the types of existing infrastructures, threats from climate change and their interdependencies could
be presented in a simple and understandable matrix.
Furthermore, identification of climate change parameters and variability will be useful to break down various
issues in the decision making regarding the infrastructures of the region or city. Figure 4 shows the effect of climate
change on a range of transportation decisions [9].
Transportation Impacts on transportation
Climate change decision making: consideration:
and variability: x System x Location
Temperature planning and x System design
change investment x Design specification
x Precipitation x Project
change x Materials
development x Safety
x Sea level rise xO&M
x Increased x Emergency
x System management/evacuation
storm surge
assessment x Repair schedule
FIGURE 4. The transportation decision affected by climate change [9].
Infrastructures Adaptation to Climate Change in Several Countries
Adaptation actions are required to diminish the impacts of climate change on the infrastructures. Adaptation to
climate change will not eliminate all adverse impacts of climate change to infrastructures. However, they can have
positive effect on the economic sectors and conducive environment for investment [10]. According to a study
conducted by World Bank as reported by the UK Government [10], the net cost for infrastructures adaptation to climate
change is only 1–2% of total cost of infrastructure provision. In addition, this cost is insignificant in compared with
other factors which may influence the future costs of infrastructures [10]. A study conducted in Ghana concluded that
the decadal cost of transportation infrastructure adaptation to climate change decrease over time, and the cost increase
if there is no adaptation action (11). Furthermore, according to Defra as cited by UK Government [10], a successful
adaptation action should be effective, efficient, equitable, and evidence-based.
Some countries have applied infrastructure adaptations to climate change as shown in Table 2 below.
TABLE 2. Actions of infrastructures adaptation to climate change in some countries [10]
Country Infrastructure adaptation actions
Australia x Identify adjustable and secure water supplies to cope with climate change as one of seven
key objectives.
x Establish a Climate Change Adaptation Infrastructure Project, includes developing a
standard ‘climate change adaptation system for organizations’.
Canada x Include adaptation in its funding programs.
x Applicants to the Canadian Strategic Infrastructure Fund are required to demonstrate the
project addresses climate change impacts and adaptation.
Denmark x Estimated climate change is included in the revision of road regulations and railway
standards.
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Country Infrastructure adaptation actions
x The Danish Environmental Protection Agency published guidelines in 2007 for
municipalities to consider climate change in connection with construction and operation
of sewage systems and sewer renovation.
Japan x Launch a series of documents on practical guidance on strategic climate change adaptation
planning.
New Zealand x National Infrastructure Plan (2010) identified the impacts of climate change as one of the
long-term key trends that need to be addressed.
DISCUSSION
It has been explained above that climate change has caused sea level rise and increas in temperature. As a result,
extreme weather and disaster, e.g. flooding, is likely to occur and impact to many sectors including infrastructures.
The climate change has affected most countries in the world, including Indonesia. Figure 5 shows the changes of
annual average temperature and annual rainfall across Indonesia in 1901–1998 [12].
FIGURE 5. Changes in annual mean temperature and annual rainfall across Indonesia (Source: Case, Ardiansyah and Spector,
2007).
Indonesia is an archipelago consisting of over 17,500 islands and over 81,000 kilometers of coastline. Indonesia
coastal area is vulnerable to climate change, where increasing trend of sea level rise, ocean temperature and wave
height potentially occur in Indonesia [12,13]. Furthermore, the projected sea surface temperature and sea level rise in
the future is likely to increase as reported by Bappenas [15]. The Jakarta flood on 2 February 2007 inundated 70,000
houses and killed 69 people with losses approximately US$450 million, which was a result of high rainfall—which
might be influenced by climate change [12]. Furthermore, flooding and sea water intrusion due to sea level rise give
negative impact to infrastructures along the coast in Asia and South-East Asia [12].
Rainfall intensity in Indonesia is categorized as high in compared with European countries. Therefore, the risk of
flooding is also higher. In recent years, the number of flooding in Indonesia is higher, both in spatial and temporal
distribution. Big cities, such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan, Samarinda, and Bandung, have experienced disastrous
flood. In several cities, it even occured more than twice in a year. The flood occurs regularly in Jakarta is allegedly
caused by tidal effect, sea level rise and high rainfall intensity. Transportation infrastructures inundated during flood
will be more vulnerable to damage. The material of road, highway, or airport could be deteriorated by inundated flood.
Consequently, the maintenance cost will be higher.
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Furthermore, flooding also impact to water resources infrastructure. Water supply network can be contaminated
by pollutant transported by flood water. It will trigger water borne diseases that could be hazardous for public health.
Some cases reported in mass media regarding floods in many places in Indonesia as well as the tangible and intangible
losses resulted from flooding. Flooding that damages transportation infrastructure can distrupt distribution of many
comodities (foods, fuel, construction material, etc). In addition, disrupted transportation infrastructure will affect other
infrastructures, such as energy infrastructure. Likewise, other infrastructure will be also affected since theyare
interconnected and interdependent.
In fact, climate change is not only a myth but a reality, therefore the government shall create appropriate and
effective adaptation strategies to address climate change related to infrastructures. Furthermore, all stakeholders
should actively participate to diminish the risks caused by climate change. Measures performed by other countries as
shown in Table 2 can be inspiration to create the strategies. In addition, it is required to increase the educational and
technical skills of all stakeholders in climate change mitigation and adaptation.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
Conclusions
Based on the previous explanation, it can be concluded:
1. Climate change is a reality as indicated by an increase in average sea level, rise in temperature and extreme
weather events.
2. Climate change brings several impacts to infrastructures, therefore adaptation is required to minimize the
negative impacts.
3. There is interconnection and interdependencies among infrastructures. A damage of one infrastructure will
affect the others.
Suggestions
There are few suggestions to improve the research based on the findings in this study:
1. Data is very essential for analysis and decision making. However, this study has lack of data in many sectors,
therefore the improvement of database is highly required.
2. Study on the impact of climate change on infrastructures and how to make adaption is urgent in Indonesia,
because some regions have experienced extreme weather and sea level rise—which directly affect the
infrastructures.
REFERENCES
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Economic Growth in Selected Economies in Asia Asian Development Bank Institute, ADB Institute. Tokyo,
(2015).
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[Link]
5. US Environmental Protection Agency, “The Effect of Climate Change on Water Resources and Programs”, (no
date).
6. IPCC, “Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report Summary Chapter for Policymakers”, (2014).
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8. M. Craighead, “Climate Change and Its Impact on Infrastructure Systems in the Midwest”, (2017).
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Infrastructure Preparing for Climate Change”, (2012).
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Infrastructure in Ghana” (Journal of Sustainability, open access, 2015), pp. 11949–11966.
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