6.
2 Metrology (Measurement Science)
6.2.1 Basics of Metrology
Metrology is the science of measurement, ensuring accuracy and precision in
manufacturing and engineering.
1. Precision vs Accuracy
• Precision: The consistency of measurements, how close repeated measurements
are to each other.
o Example: Measuring 5 times and getting 4.99, 5.01, 5.00, 4.98, 5.02.
o High Precision: Results are clustered closely, irrespective of the true value.
• Accuracy: How close a measurement is to the true or actual value.
o Example: If the actual length is 5 cm, and the measurement is 5.00 cm, it is
highly accurate.
• Ideal Scenario: High precision and accuracy together.
Scenario Precision Accuracy
High Precision & Accuracy
High Precision, Low Accuracy
Low Precision, High Accuracy
Low Precision & Accuracy
2. Standards of Measurement
Standards serve as reference points to ensure uniformity in measurements.
• Line Standards:
o Based on length between two marks.
o Example: Meter scale, yardstick.
o Advantage: Easy to use, low cost.
o Limitation: Subject to wear and tear.
• End Standards:
o Defined by the distance between two surfaces.
o Example: Slip gauges, gauge blocks.
o Advantage: High precision, used in workshops.
o Limitation: Limited to small lengths.
• Wave Standards:
o Utilize the wavelength of light as a standard.
o Example: Interferometry.
o Advantage: Extremely high accuracy, suitable for nanometer-level
measurements.
• Atomic Standards:
o Based on natural atomic vibrations.
o Example: Atomic clocks, defining the second using the cesium atom.
o Advantage: Ultimate precision in timekeeping.
3. Errors in Measurement
Errors are deviations from the true value.
• Systematic Errors:
o Consistent bias in measurements due to faulty instruments or environmental
conditions.
o Example: A scale that always reads 0.1 kg more.
o Minimization: Calibration, compensating adjustments.
• Random Errors:
o Occur due to unpredictable variations.
o Example: Slight variations in manual measurements.
o Minimization: Repeat measurements and take the average.
• Calibration Errors:
o Due to incorrect calibration of instruments.
o Example: A thermometer that shows 2°C higher than the actual temperature.
o Solution: Regular calibration against standard references.
6.2.2 Linear & Angular Measurements
1. Vernier Caliper
• Purpose: Measures internal, external dimensions, and depth with high precision.
• Least Count: The smallest measurable length, typically 0.02 mm or 0.001 inch.
Measurement Technique:
1. Close the jaws around the object.
2. Align the main scale with the vernier scale.
3. Read the main scale value.
4. Add the vernier scale reading for the final measurement.
• Applications: Used in mechanical, manufacturing, and quality control fields.
2. Micrometer Screw Gauge
• Types:
o Outside Micrometer: Measures external diameters.
o Inside Micrometer: Measures internal dimensions.
o Depth Micrometer: Measures the depth of holes and slots.
• Least Count: Usually 0.01 mm or 0.001 inch.
• Measurement Technique:
1. Place the object between anvil and spindle.
2. Rotate the thimble until the object is snugly held.
3. Read the sleeve scale and thimble scale to get the measurement.
3. Slip Gauges (Gauge Blocks)
• Purpose: Provides a reference for precision measurements.
• Grades:
o Grade 0: Used for inspection.
o Grade 1: For tool room applications.
o Grade 2: For workshop use.
• Working Principle:
o Slip gauges are wrung together using a sliding motion, forming a temporary
bond due to molecular adhesion.
4. Angular Measurement Instruments
• Sine Bar:
o Measures angles using the sine principle.
o Used with gauge blocks to set specific angles.
• Bevel Protractor:
o Measures angles directly, with a rotatable blade and a vernier scale.
o Ideal for angular measurements in machining and fabrication.
• Angle Gauges:
o Used for precision angle measurement and calibration.
6.2.3 Surface Roughness Measurement
1. Surface Finish Parameters
• Ra (Arithmetic Average Roughness): The average height of peaks and valleys from
the mean line.
• Rz (Mean Roughness Depth): The average difference between the highest peak and
lowest valley in five sampling lengths.
• Rq (Root Mean Square Roughness): The square root of the average of the squared
deviations.
2. Methods of Surface Measurement
• Stylus Profilometer:
o Uses a stylus that traces the surface.
o Converts vertical movements into an electrical signal to measure roughness.
• Optical Comparators:
o Uses light interference to measure surface topography.
o Non-contact method, ideal for delicate surfaces.
3. Contact vs Non-Contact Measurement
• Contact Method:
o Stylus-type instruments touch the surface.
o Advantages: High accuracy, good for rough surfaces.
o Disadvantages: May damage soft surfaces.
• Non-Contact Method:
o Uses lasers or optical methods.
o Advantages: No risk of damage, good for soft and thin surfaces.
o Disadvantages: Lower accuracy in highly reflective surfaces.
6.2.4 Limits, Fits & Tolerances
1. Interchangeability & Standardization
• Interchangeability: Ensures parts fit properly without manual adjustments.
• Standardization: Follows set standards (e.g., ISO, ANSI) for uniformity.
2. Types of Fits
• Clearance Fit:
o Ensures free movement between mating parts.
o Example: Shafts in bearings.
• Interference Fit:
o Tight fit, where the shaft is larger than the hole.
o Example: Press-fit gears on a shaft.
• Transition Fit:
o Provides a compromise between clearance and interference.
o Example: Couplings that need to slide but not too loosely.
3. Hole Basis vs Shaft Basis System
• Hole Basis System:
o The hole size is constant, and the shaft size is varied to achieve different fits.
o Preferred due to ease of machining and standard tool availability.
• Shaft Basis System:
o The shaft size is constant, and the hole size is varied.
o Used in specialized applications.
4. ISO Tolerance System (IT01 – IT16)
• IT Grades:
o IT01 - IT5: For precision instruments.
o IT6 - IT11: For general engineering applications.
o IT12 - IT16: For rough manufacturing processes.
• Tolerance Zone:
o Represents the permissible variation in dimensions.
o Defined by upper and lower limits of size.
5. Allowance, Deviation & Tolerance Zones
• Allowance:
o The intentional difference between mating parts to achieve a specific fit.
o Can be positive (clearance) or negative (interference).
• Deviation:
o The difference between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension.
o Upper Deviation: Maximum limit - Nominal size.
o Lower Deviation: Nominal size - Minimum limit.
• Tolerance Zone:
o Defines the acceptable range of dimensions.
o Determines the quality level of the manufactured parts.
6.2.5 Gauges & Inspection
1. Types of Gauges
• Plug Gauge:
o Measures the internal diameter of holes.
o Consists of GO and NO-GO ends to check tolerances.
• Ring Gauge:
o Measures the external diameter of shafts.
o Also has GO and NO-GO sides for quick inspection.
• Snap Gauge:
o Used for measuring diameters and thicknesses of parts.
o Provides a quick pass/fail check.
• Thread Gauge:
o Checks the pitch and profile of threads.
o Includes thread plug gauges for internal threads and ring gauges for external
threads.
2. GO & NO-GO Gauging Principle
• GO Gauge:
o Should fit easily into the part.
o Ensures the dimension is not undersized.
• NO-GO Gauge:
o Should not fit into the part.
o Confirms the dimension is not oversized.
• Application:
o Used in mass production for rapid inspection of tolerances.
6.2.6 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs)
1. Manual vs CNC CMM
• Manual CMM:
o Operated manually by a technician.
o Suitable for simple measurements and low-volume inspections.
• CNC CMM:
o Controlled by computer software.
o Ideal for complex geometries and high-volume inspections.
o Provides high precision and repeatability.
2. Probe Types
• Contact Probes:
o Uses a touch probe to physically contact the surface.
o Measures dimensional and geometric tolerances.
• Laser Probes:
o Uses laser beams to scan surfaces.
o Ideal for soft or delicate materials.
• Optical Probes:
o Uses cameras or light sensors to measure part dimensions.
o Suitable for transparent or reflective surfaces.
3. 3D Measurement of Complex Parts
• CMMs can measure complex geometries, including:
o Contours, angles, and curved surfaces.
o Provides accurate 3D models for quality control.
o Supports reverse engineering and inspection processes.
6.2.7 Optical & Advanced Metrology
1. Optical Flat & Interferometry
• Optical Flat:
o Made of highly polished glass.
o Used to measure flatness through light interference patterns.
• Interferometry (Newton’s Rings):
o Creates interference fringes when light passes through thin films.
o Used to measure surface flatness and surface quality.
2. Laser Scanning & Machine Vision Systems
• Laser Scanning:
o Uses laser beams to create a 3D digital model.
o Ideal for inspection and reverse engineering.
• Machine Vision Systems:
o Uses cameras and software to analyze part dimensions.
o Commonly used in automated quality control systems.
3. Non-Contact Metrology Techniques
• Uses lasers, optical sensors, or ultrasound.
• Suitable for soft, delicate, or high-speed components.
• Eliminates measurement errors due to physical contact.
6.3 Dimensional & Geometric Metrology
6.3.1 Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing (GD&T)
1. Feature Control Frame
• Displays tolerance requirements for a feature.
• Contains:
o Geometric characteristic symbol (e.g., flatness, circularity).
o Tolerance value and modifiers.
o Datum references (if applicable).
2. Datums & Basic Dimensions
• Datums:
o Act as reference points or planes for measurements.
o Provide a baseline for tolerancing and inspection.
• Basic Dimensions:
o Define the ideal size, location, or angle.
o Shown as boxed values on engineering drawings.
3. Tolerance Symbols
• Flatness: Ensures a surface lies within a tolerance zone.
• Straightness: Controls the deviation of a line.
• Circularity (Roundness): Ensures a circular surface is evenly round.
• Cylindricity: Combines straightness, roundness, and parallelism of a cylinder's
surface.
4. Positional & Runout Tolerances
• Positional Tolerance:
o Controls the location of features (e.g., holes, slots).
o Ensures features are within a specific zone.
• Runout Tolerance:
o Controls surface variation during rotation.
o Total Runout: Measures variation in both radial and axial directions.
6.3.2 Machine Tool Metrology
1. Alignment Testing
• Lathes:
o Checks the concentricity, tailstock alignment, and bed straightness.
• Milling Machines:
o Tests for spindle alignment, table flatness, and axis squareness.
• Grinding Machines:
o Measures the parallelism of the grinding wheel and worktable.
2. Measurement Techniques
• Straightness:
o Uses dial indicators or laser alignment tools.
• Parallelism:
o Ensures two surfaces are equidistant along their entire length.
• Squareness:
o Checks if two surfaces are at a right angle.
• Roundness Measurement:
o Uses roundness testers and form testers.
6.3.3 Calibration & Traceability
1. ISO Standards for Calibration
• ISO 9001:
o Provides guidelines for quality management systems (QMS).
o Ensures measuring instruments are calibrated regularly.
• ISO/IEC 17025:
o Specifies requirements for calibration laboratories.
o Covers testing, calibration methods, and traceability.
2. National & International Metrology Standards
• NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology):
o Sets measurement standards in the U.S.
• BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures):
o Maintains international standards of measurement.
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization):
o Establishes global standards for metrology and quality assurance.
