Production Engineering and Design Dept.

Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila

MINIA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
PRODUCTION ENGINEERING & DESIGN DEPARTMENT

Fundamentals of Measurement in
Production
Code: PD 223

Prepared By
Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
2021
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 Production Engineering and Design Dept.
Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
Course Contents NO
Chapter 1: Metrology 4
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Objectives of Metrology 4
1.3 Definitions 5
1.4 Metrological characteristics of Measuring Instruments 6
1.5 Requirements of an Inspection Tool 7
1.6 Classification of measurement methods 7
1.7 Methods of Measurement 7
1.8 Types and Sources of Errors in Measurement 9
Chapter 2: Fits, and Tolerances 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Principle of interchangeability 13
2.3 Tolerances 13
2.4 Terminology 14
2.5 Limit of Sizes 14
2.6 Basis of Limit System 15
2.7 Types of Tolerance 15
2.8 International Tolerance Grade (IT) 17
2.9 Specification of Tolerance 17
2.10 Fit 20
2.11 Clearance Fit 21
2.12 Interference Fit 22
2.13 Transition Fit 22
2.14 Numerical Examples 23
Chapter 3: Linear Measurement 26
3.1 Introduction 26
3.2 Classification of Instruments 26
3.3 Precision 28
3.4 Dimensions 29
3.4.1 Steel Rule 29
3.4.2 Callipers 30
3.4.3 Vernier principle 31
3.4.4 Micrometers 34
3.4.5 Special Purpose Gauges 38
3.4.6 Rectangular Gauge Blocks 38
Chapter 4: Angular Measurement 40
4.1 Introduction 40
4.2 Protractor 40
4.3 Sine Bars 43
4.4 Sine Centre 44
4.5 Angle Gauges 45

Chapter 5: Comparators 46

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 Production Engineering and Design Dept.
Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
5.1 Introduction 46
5.2 Function Requirements 47
5.3 Classification of Comparators 48
5.4 Mechanical Comparators 48
5.5 Johansson Mikrokator 50
5.6 Sigma Comparator 50
5.7 Mechanical-Optical Comparators 50
5.8 Zeiss Ultra-optimeter 51
5.9 Optical Projector 51
5.10 Electrical Comparators 52
5.11 Pneumatic Comparators 53
Chapter 6: Limit gauges 55
6.1 Introduction of Limit gauges 55
6.2 Advantages of gauging 55
6.3 The Taylor Principle 56
6.4 Classification of Limit Gauges 56
6.5 Description of some commonly used gauges 57
Chapter 7: Optical Measurement 63
7.1 Introduction 63
7.2 Optical Measurement Techniques 63
7.3 Tool Maker’s Microscope 63
7.4 Profile Projector 65
7.5 Optical Squares 66
Chapter 8: Metrology of Gears 67
8.1 Introduction 67
8.2 Gear Terminology 67
8.3 Gear measuring instrument 69
Chapter 9:Measurement of Screw Threads 74
9.1 Introduction 74
9.2 Screw Thread Terminology 75
9.3 Measurement of Screw Thread Elements 78
Chapter 10: Surface Texture Measurement 81
10.1 Introduction 81
10.2 Surface Metrology Concepts 81
10.3 Surface texture 81
10.4 Surface Roughness 81
10.5 Surface Roughness Number 82
10.6 Finish Terminology 83
10.7 Methods of measuring surface finish 85
10.8 Mean line profile 85
10.9 Comparison methods 86
10.10 Direct instrument measuring method 87

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Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila

Chapter 1: Metrology
1.1 Introduction
Engineering metrology is restricted to the measurement of length,
angles and other quantities which are expressed in linear or angular
terms.
1.1.1 Need of Inspection
When large number of identical parts are manufactured on the basis of
Interchangeability if their dimensions are actually measured every time
lot of time will be required. Hence, to save the time gauges are used,
which can tell whether the part manufactured is within the prescribed
limits or not.
Thus, the need of inspection can be summarized as:
1) To ensure that the part, material or a component conforms to the
established standard.
2) To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
3) To maintain customer relation by ensuring that no faulty product
reaches the customers.
4) Provide the means of finding out shortcomings in manufacture. The
results of inspection are not only recorded but forwarded to the
manufacturing department for taking necessary steps, so as to
produce acceptable parts and reduce scrap.
5) It also helps to purchase good quality of raw materials, tools,
equipment which governs the quality of the finished products.
6) It also helps to co-ordinate the functions of quality control, production,
purchasing and other departments of the organization.
To take decision on the defective parts i.e., to judge the possibility of
making some of these parts acceptable after minor repairs.

1.2 Objectives of Metrology

Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required
accuracy at a minimum cost, metrology has further objectives in a modern
engineering plant with different shapes which are:
1. Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
2. Determination of the process capabilities and ensure that these are
better than the relevant component tolerances.
3. Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that
they are quite sufficient for their respective measurements.
4. Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of
available facilities.

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5. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of Statistical
Quality Control Techniques.
6. To standardize the measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
8. To prepare designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.

1.3 Definitions
1. Measurement
The determination of an unknown dimension. This requires that known
standards be used directly or indirectly for comparison.
2. Basic Dimension
The target dimension for a part. This typically has an associated
tolerance.
3. Tolerance
The allowable variation in a basic dimension before a part is considered
unacceptable.
4. Dimension
A size of a feature, either measured, or specified.
5. Dimensional Metrology
The use of instruments to determine object sizes shapes, form, etc.
6. Limits
These typically define a dimensional range that a measurement can be
expected to fall within.
7. Accuracy
The expected ability for a system to discriminate between two settings.
It is comparison of desired results with undesired results.
8. Precision
Implies a high degree of accuracy. It is the measure of the dispersion of
the results.
9. Repeatability
Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that during a Mechanical
cycle, a process does not stop at the same location, or move through the
same spot each time. The variation range is referred to as repeatability.
10. Standards
A known set of dimensions, or ideals to compare others against.
 Standards are the basis for all modern accuracy. As new methods are
found to make more accurate standards, the level of accuracy
possible in copies of the standard increase, and so on.
 A well-known metric standard is the metric 1m rod.
 Many standards are available for measuring, and many techniques are
available for comparison.

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 Production Engineering and Design Dept.
Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
11. Standard Sizes
A component, or a dimension that is chosen from a table of standard
sizes/forms.
1.4 Metrological characteristics of Measuring Instruments
Measuring instruments are usually specified by their metrological
properties, such as range of measurement, scale graduation value, scale
spacing, sensitivity and reading accuracy.
1. Range of Measurement.
It indicates the size values between which measurements may be made
on the given instrument.
2. Sca1e range.
It is the difference between the values of the measured quantities
corresponding to the terminal scale marks.
3. Instrument range.
It is the capacity or total range of values which an instrument is capable
of measuring.
4. Scale Spacing.
Most instruments have a constant value of scale spacing throughout the
scale. Such scales are said to be linear.
5. Scale Division Value.
It is the measured value of the measured quantity corresponding to one
division of the instrument, e.g., for ordinary scale, the scale division value
is 1 mm.
6. Sensitivity (Implication or gearing ratio).
It is the ratio of the scale spacing to the division value.
7. Sensitivity Threshold.
It is defined as the minimum measured value which may cause any
movement whatsoever of the indicating hand.
8. Reading Accuracy.
It is the accuracy that may be attained in using a measuring instrument.
9. Reading Error.
It is defined as the difference between the reading of the instrument and
the actual value of the dimension being measured.
10. Accuracy of observation.
It is the accuracy attainable in reading the scale of an instrument.
11. Parallax.
It is apparent change in the position of the index relative to the scale
marks, when scale is observed in a direction other than perpendicular to
its plane.
12. Repeatability.

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Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
It is the variation of indications in repeated measurements of the same
dimension.
13. Measuring force.
It is the force produced by an instrument and acting upon the measured
surface in the direction of measurement.
1.5 Requirements of an Inspection Tool
The requirements of an ideal inspection tool are: It should be
a) Accurate
b) require a minimum of operator skill
c) Inspect a specific type of error
d) fast to use
e) Self-checking.
1.6 Classification of measurement methods
In precision measurements various methods of measurement are followed
depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
Actual measurements may employ one or more combination of the
following:
1. Direct method of measurement: in this method the value is obtained
directly by comparing the unknown with the standard.
2. Indirect method of measurement: in this method several parameters (to
which the quantity to be measured is linked with) are measured directly
and then the value is determined by mathematical relationship.
3. Comparison method of measurement: this method involves comparison
with either a known value of the same quantity or another quantity which
is function of the quantity to be measured.
4. Substitution method of measurement: in this method, the quantity to be
measured is measured by direct comparison on an indicating device by
replacing the measuring quantity with some other known quantity which
produces same effect on the indicating device.
5. Differential or comparison method of measurement: this method
involves measuring the difference between the given quantity and a
known master of near about the same value.
1.7 Methods of Measurement
The methods of measurement can be classified as:
1. Direct method of measurement.
This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the
quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any calculations.
2. Indirect method of measurement.
In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by
measuring other quantities which are functionally related to the required
value.
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3. Absolute or Fundamental method.
It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the
quantity.
4. Comparative method.
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is compared with
known value of the same quantity or other quantity practically related to
it.
5. Transposition method.
It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value
of the quantity measured is first balanced by an initial known value A of
the same quantity, and then the value of the quantity measured is put in
place of this known value and is balanced again by another known value
B.
6. Coincidence method.
It is a differential method of measurement, in which a very small
difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the
reference is determined by the observation of the coincidence of certain
lines or signals.
7. Deflection method.
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is directly
indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
8. Complementary method.
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is combined with
a known value of the same quantity.
9. Method of measurement by substitution.
It is a method of direct comparison in which the value of a quantity to be
measured is replaced by a known value of the same quantity,
10. Method of null measurement.
In this method the difference between the value of the quantity to be
measured and the known value of the same quantity with which it is
compared is brought to zero.
11. Contact method.
In this method the sensor or measuring tip of the instrument actually
touches the surface to be measured. e.g., measurements by micrometer,
vernier caliper, dial indicators etc.
12. Contactless method.
In contactless method of measurement, the there is no direct contact
with the surface to be measured. e.g., measurement by optical
instruments, such as tool makers microscope, projection comparator
etc.

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Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
1.8 Types and Sources of Errors in Measurement
The error in measurement is the difference between the measured value
and the true value of the measured dimension.
Error in measurement =Measured value - True value.
During measurement several types of error may arise, these are:

1) Static errors
These errors result from the physical nature of the various components
of measuring system.
2) Reading errors
Reading errors apply exclusively to the read-out device.
3) Interpolation error.
It is the reading error resulting from the inexact evaluation of the
position of index with regards to two adjacent graduation marks
between which the index is located.
4) Characteristic Errors
It is defined as the deviation of the output of the measuring system from
the theoretical predicted performance or from nominal performance
specifications.
5) Loading Errors
Instrument loading error is the difference between the values of the
measured before and after the measuring system is
connected/contacted for measurement.
6) Environmental Errors
These errors result from the effect of surrounding such as
temperature, pressure, humidity etc. on measuring system.
7) Dynamic Errors
Dynamic error is the error caused by time variations in the measured.

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8) Effect of supports
When long measuring bars, straight edges are supported as beam, they
are defected or deformed. The amount of deflection depends upon the
positions of the supports as shown in Fig.1.1.

Figure 1.1 Effect of support

9) Effect of alignment
Abbe's alignment principle: It states that "the axis or line of
measurement should coincide with the axis of measuring instrument
or line of the measuring scale as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Effect of Misalignment

The combined cosine and sine error will occur if the micrometer axis is
not truly perpendicular to the axis of the work piece (Refer Fig. 1.3).
Referring Fig.1.3, if D = true diameter, L =apparent length, d = micrometer
anvil diameter
Then D = (L cos θ) - d sin θ = L cos θ – d sin θ
And error, = L – D = L – (L cos θ – d sin θ) = L (1- cos θ) + d sin θ
The errors of above nature are avoided by using with spherical ends.

Figure 1.3 Combined Sins and Cosine Error

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Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila
10) Contact pressure
The variation in the contact pressure between the anvils of the
instrument and the work being measured produce considerable
difference in reading. Fig. 1.4 shows the error caused by combined
deformation of the stylus and the work piece.

Figure 1.4 Effect of Contact Pressure on Measurement

11) Parallax Error

Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an
object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the
angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines as shown in
Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Parallax Errors

12) Errors due to vibrations

Vibrations may affect the accuracy of measurement. The instrument
anvil will not give consistent and repetitive reading if it is subjected to
vibration as shown in Fig. 1.6.

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Assoc. Prof. Helmi Abulila

Figure 1.6 Surface Displacements

13) Error due to poor contact

Fig. 1.7 shows how the poor contact between the working gauge or
instrument and the work piece causes an error. To avoid this type of
error the gauge with wide area of contact should not be used while
measuring irregular or curved surface and correct pressure should be
applied while making the contact.

Figure 1.7 Errors Due To Poor Contact

14) Error due to wear in gauges

The measuring surfaces of instrument such as the anvils of the
micrometer are subjected to wear due to repeated use.

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