Proximity Fuzes Theory and Techniques

PROXIMITY FUZES
THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

DRDO Monographs/Special Publications Series
Introduction to Camouflage and Deception: JV Ramana Rao

Solid Propellant Chemistry: Prof K Kishore and K Sridhara
Environment in Submarines: MVR Koteswara Rao
An Introduction to Night Vision Technology: Dr R Hradaynath
Photonics in Warfare: Dr VV Rampal
Aerodynamic Predictive Methods and their Validation in Hypersonic Flows:
Dr AK Sreekanth
Modelling Radar ECCM: A System Approach: AK Subramanian
Microwave Circuits and Components: Prof GP Srivastava
Inverse Gas Chromatography: Dr AK Sen
Environmental Conservation and Security: Dr AK Datta and Dr Ram Kumar
Defence Research & Development Organisation: 1958-1982: Dr RP Shenoy
Infrared Detectors: Materials and Technology: AK Sreedhar and Prof KSR
Koteswara Rao
Reminiscences of a Defence Scientist: A Quest for Self-reliance: V Narayana Rao
Acousto-optic Devices and their Defence Applications: Dr JC Joshi
Military Bridging: MR Joshi
IGMDP: Lt Gen (Retd.) VJ Sundaram, et al.
Microwave Remote Sensing: Prof OPN Calla
Defence Against Chemical and Biological Agents: AK Sen
PROXIMITY FUZES
THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
VK ARORA
Former Director
Defence Science Centre
Delhi
DEFENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
NEW DELHI 110 105
2010
DRDO MONOGRAPHS/SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS SERIES
PROXIMITY FUZES: THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
VK ARORA
Series Editors
Editor-in-Chief Asso. Editor-in-Chief Sr. Editor Editor
Dr AL Moorthy Shashi Tyagi Vinod Kumari A Saravanan
Asst. Editor Editorial Asst Printing Marketing
Kavita Narwal Gunjan Bakshi SK Gupta Rajpal Singh
Cataloguing in Publication
Arora, VK
Proximity fuzes: Theory and Techniques
DRDO monographs/special publications series.
1. Proximity fuze 2. Oscillators 3. Photodetectors 4. Antennas

I. Title II. Series
623:614.8.086.4
© 2010, Defence Research & Development Organisation, New Delhi 110 105.
ISBN: 978-81-86514-29-0
All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the Indian Copyright Act 1957, no part
of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted, stored in a database
or a retrieval system, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
Publisher.
The views expressed in the book are those of the author only. The editors or Publisher
do not assume responsibility for the statements/opinions expressed by the author.
Designed, produced and printed by Director, DESIDOC, Metcalfe House, Delhi110 054.
Contents
Preface xi
CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF PROXIMITY FUZES

1.1 Significance and Background of the Radio Proximity Fuze in World
War II 1
1.2 Development Work in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 2
1.3 Research and Development Work at Applied Physics Laboratory 4
1.4 Development Work at National Bureau of Standards 4
1.5 Tests 5
1.6 Production Scale-up 5
1.7 A Striking Combat Success 6
1.8 Electronic Countermeasures 6
1.9 Development of Proximity Fuzes 7
1.10 Post-War Developments 7
1.11 Brief History of Development of Proximity Fuzes in India (1966-1975) 8
CHAPTER 2: PROXIMITY FUZES: AN OVERVIEW

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Basics of Proximity Fuzes 12
2.3 Radar Proximity Fuzes 14
2.4 Laser Proximity Fuzes 24
2.5 Pulsed Time of Flight Method 26
2.6 Beam Modulation Telemetry 26
2.7 Electronic Countermeasures 27
2.8 Electronic Counter Countermeasures 28
2.9 Antennas 30
2.10 Fuze Nose Cones 34
2.11 Oscillators 35
2.12 Power Sources/Reserve Battery of Proximity Fuzes 36
2.13 Safety and Arming 38
2.14 Shock and Acceleration 40
2.15 Fuze Classification 42
2.16 Evolution of Fuze Technology 47
2.17 Military Standards 48
CHAPTER 3: FUZE RANGE EQUATIONS
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Range Equations for Point Targets in Noise 50
3.3 Fuze Range Equation for CW and FMCW Radar 53
3.4 Range Equation for an Area Target 54
3.5 Fuze Equation for Self-Protection Jammers 56
3.6 Range Equation for Pulsed Laser Proximity Fuzes 58
CHAPTER 4: RESERVE BATTERY

4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Basic Power Sources 63
4.3 Applications 70
CHAPTER 5: OSCILLATORS
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 Specifications of Fuze Oscillators 73
5.3 Basics of Oscillators 75
5.4 Design Approach 76
5.5 Oscillator Limiting 83
5.6 Power Output of the Oscillators 83
5.7 Resonators 84
5.8 Active Devices 86
5.9 Voltage Controlled Oscillators 87
5.10 Phase Noise 89
CHAPTER 6: MIXERS
6.1 Introduction 95
6.2 Basics of Mixers 95
6.3 Mixer Archtecture 96
6.4 Mixer Properties 99
6.5 Mixer Non-Linearity 99
6.6 Self-Mixing in Mixers 103
6.7 Fuze Mixer Requirements 103
6.8 Mixers for Fuze Receiver 104
6.9 General Consideration in Optimisation of Mixer Performance 112
6.10 FET Resistive Mixers 113
CHAPTER 7: ANTENNAS
7.1 Introduction 121
7.2 Basic Charactristics of Microstrip Antenna 121
7.3 Feed Techniques 122
7.4 Bandwidth Enhancement Techniques 124
vi
7.5 Characteristics of Patch Antennas 130
7.6 Basic Characteristics 131
7.7 Design Examples 135
CHAPTER 8: FMCW PROXIMITY FUZES

8.2 Basic Structure of FMCW Fuzes 140
8.3 Attributes of FMCW System 140
8.4 Basic Aspects of FMCW System 142
8.5 Range Resolution 147
8.6 Range Accuracy 148
8.7 Bandwidth Requirement 151
8.8 Transmitter/Receiver Leakage 151
8.9 ECM Systems 155
8.10 ECCM Systems 157
CHAPTER 9: LASER SOURCES AND PHOTODETECTORS

9.2 Diode Laser 159
9.3 Characteristics of Laser Diodes 161
9.4 Microchip Solid State Lasers 163
9.5 Q-Switched Microchip Lasers 164
9.6 Photodiodes for the Laser Range Finders 165
9.7 Broad Features of Avalanche Photodiodes 165
9.8 Structure of APD 166
9.9 APD Parameters 167
9.10 Choice between Pin Diode and APD for LRF 172
CHAPTER 10: NANOSECOND PULSE GENERATOR

10.2 Requirements of Laser Diode Driver 173
10.3 Avalanche Transister Pulse Generator 174
10.4 MOSFETS 180
10.5 Techniques for Achieving Fast Switching 186
CHAPTER 11: LASER PROXIMITY FUZES

11.2 The Basic Principle and Structure of a Pulsed Laser Range Finder 190
11.3 Transmitter 191
11.4 Receiver 192
11.5 Subsystems of Proximity Fuze Receivers 194
11.6 System Considerations 203
vii
11.7 Solar Background Radiation 206
11.8 Range Equation for Anti-aircraft Fuze 209
11.9 Laser Radar Equation for the Clutter due to Fog and Clouds 212
Index 215
viii
Preface
This monograph deals with theory and design aspects of RF-FMCW and Laser
proximity fuzes. The book begins with a short history of development of proximity
fuzes. The successful development of the fuze by the US during the Second World
War was an outstanding technical achievement. Though the Radar, a more complex
system had been developed and used during the war, there were unique features of
the proximity fuzes which made its development extremely difficult. The ability of
the fuzes using vacuum tubes to withstand g shocks of ten of thousands when fired
from the gun, was considered a formidable task. The development of the fuzes was
so significant that many experts consider this to be next only to the development of
atomic bomb. The history of development in India from 1966 to 1975 is also briefly
covered.
Lack of technical literature on the proximity fuzes was the key motivation to
write this monograph. The book will be useful at many levels: Professionals who
specialise in allied/areas such as a missiles, young engineers who are entering the
fuze development programmes, military personnel who use these fuzes and
electrical/ electronics engineers for general reading.
The book is divided into three main subject areas. The first section considers
the basics of proximity fuzes. The second section deals with FMCW fuzes. The last
section covers the latest Laser Proximity Fuzes.
Chapter 2 gives an overview of Proximity Fuzes. This chapter contains material
everyone associated with proximity fuzes should know, in particular, the users and
the decision makers. This chapter covers the evolution of CW proximity fuzes from
fuzes developed during the second World War to the FMCW fuzes which became
the workhorse fuze after the 1980s and continues to be most effective proximity-
sensor till today. This chapter gives an overview of all of the subsystems of FMCW
and the recent Laser proximity fuzes. The chapter also addresses the problem of g
- several tens of thousands which the fuzes for high speed artillery and anti aircraft
shells have to withstand.
Chapter 3 on the fuze range equations is a standard material available in Radar
texts but is included for the basic orientation and for the sake of completeness.
Chapter 4 deals with reserve battery and power sources required by all types of
fuzes - FMCW, their variants and Laser proximity fuzes.
Chapters 5, 6 and 7 deal with of FMCW fuzes and their sub-systems.
Chapter 5 deals with voltage controlled oscillators. In particular the importance
of phase and amplitude noise of oscillator is addressed because low phase and
amplitude noise are a fundamental requirement of fuzes. The active devices which
achieve the objective of low noise are considered and compared.
Chapter 6 on the mixers deals with highly linear mixers - Gilbert cell mixers and
FET resistive mixers. High degree of linearity is a basic prerequisite of mixers since
the modern fuzes operate in an intense environment of Electronic Counter Measure
(ECM). ECM signals can penetrate into the receiver through the mixer non-linearity.
Chapter 7 deals with microstrip antennas for fuzes. These antennas can be used
with a wide range of fuzes which requires a radiation pattern along the projectile axis
such as fuzes for bombs, mortars and high angle artillery shells. Fuze antennas need a
fairly high impedance bandwidth to reduce reflections from a common antenna system
which most conventional ammunition are constrained to use. This chapter considers
various options to achieve high bandwidth.
Chapter 8 on the FMCW fuzes contains the basic general principles of FMCW
and explains the unique properties of FMCW fuzes .The problem of single antenna
FMCW fuzes, that of the leakage of transmitted power with its attendant noise to the
receiver are considered. The chapter demonstrates that a low noise VCOs and a highly
linear mixer make the FMCW fuzes as one of the best proximity sensors.
The third section of the book discusses the pulsed laser proximity fuze with its
two most important subsystems, viz., the laser sources, the photodetectors and
nanosecond pulse generators to drive the laser source.
Chapter 9 covers the specific sources and their properties that make them
eminently suitable for pulsed laser fuzes. In particular, the microslab solid state lasers
which are capable of providing very high peak power short pulses required for anti-
aircraft fuzes are described. Importance of noise in photodetectors due to solar
background radiation and optimisation of APD gain to achieve high signal-to-noise
ratio in laser receivers is given special attention.
Chapter 10 deals with nanosecond pulse generators. Fuzes which function at a
range of few metres to tens of metres require pulses with a width of 2-10 nanoseconds.
Techniques of achieving short nanosecond pulses based on Avalanche transistors and
high speed MOSFETS are dealt with .
Chapter 11 on Laser proximity fuzes deals with principals of laser range finding
as applied to very short ranges. Broadly various systems aspects, like the power
requirement of fuze transmitter and the type of receivers required for achieving high
dynamic range are described. System considerations like background solar radiation
and attenuation in fog and clouds, detrimental to fuze performance are described.
21 April 2010 VK Arora

Delhi
x
Chapter 1
History of Proximity Fuzes
1.1 SIGNIFICANCE AND BACKGROUND OF THE RADIO PROXIMITY FUZE

IN WORLD WAR II1
The radio proximity, or VT fuze for artillery shells represents a major contribution to
the success of the war in Europe as well as in the Pacific. Its development, production,
and military use is an outstanding example of collaboration by R&D groups, industrial
organisations and the military services.
A fuze is that part of an artillery projectile which detonates the explosive charge and
ideally would detonate the shell in the most optimum position to inflict maximum damage
to the target. Early in the war, it became evident that speed, manoeuvrability, and heights
attainable by modern military aircraft presented a method of attack against which fuzes
currently available for anti-aircraft guns were relatively ineffective. Even with the
improvements in directing anti-aircraft gunfire made possible by radar, low probability
of hitting elusive attacking aircraft made the problem of defence against aircraft
extremely important and urgent for a nation involved in the war.
The idea of proximity fuzes is not unique and was suggested independently by
many in the United States and other countries prior to 1940. However, the obstacles in
the way of actually developing a fuze of this type seemed insurmountable. Many
technical experts, who had witnessed an anti-aircraft demonstration, had toyed with
the idea of a proximity fuze. The small target area presented by an aircraft, practically
forced a serious and urgent need for a fuze which would detonate in the vicinity of the
aircraft.
The inherent disadvantages of the time fuze and the contact fuze stimulated the
need for proximity fuze. The time fuze, which detonates a projectile at a specified time
after it leaves the gun, has been widely used against aircraft and personnel. However,
use of time fuzes requires, not only that time of flight from the gun to the aircraft be
calculated precisely and immediately before firing, but fuze time be set accordingly. A
slightest error in fuze time estimate or setting may cause the projectile to explode at a
harmless distance from the target.
The probability of success of the contact fuzed projectile in an anti-aircraft role is
extremely limited, since it must actually hit its target before it detonates. As range
lengthens, this becomes almost impossible.
Proximity Fuzes: Theory and Techniques
It has long been recognised that the efficacy of explosive projectiles would be
greatly enhanced if these could be equipped with fuzes which would be actuated by the
proximity to a target. For example, an anti-aircraft projectile which would automatically
detonate when coming within lethal range of an aircraft would simplify fire control
techniques and would be highly effective.
Although inventors had suggested almost every possible type of proximity fuze,
they failed to indicate how the formidable development and engineering difficulties
could be satisfactorily overcome. Such fuzes to be useful for artillery purposes, would
have to be capable of withstanding the shock of tens of thousands gs when fired from
a gun, in addition to undergoing a high rate of spin imparted to a shell. Many patents on
proximity devices were issued in various countries, but they failed to suggest any
concrete technique to solve formidable problem.
British scientists were working on proximity fuze devices for rockets and bombs at
least as early as 1939. Captured documents indicate that German work on proximity
fuze development had begun even earlier, as early as 1930s, and was still in process
when hostilities ended in the Europe. The possibility that proximity fuzes of various
types might be feasible, had been recognised for a long time. The American
achievement, accomplished by no other country, was the actual development of a
proximity fuze that would function and that could be manufactured by mass-production
techniques. The development work, started during 1940, was carried out in the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM), Applied Physics Laboratory, National
Bureau of Standards, and Crosley Corporation.
1.2 DEVELOPMENT WORK IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL

MAGNETISM 1
During August 1940, a group called Section-T of the National Development
Research Council (NDRC) was established under Dr Merle Tauve of the Carnegie
Institution. The Group led by Dr Tauve, and assisted by Richard Roberts was to
conduct research in the Laboratory of Territorial Magnetism of Carnegie Institute,
Washington. The Group was convinced that whatever method was selected, it would
involve substantial electronics. They had begun firing vacuum tubes from a small gun
and had found that these frequently survived the ordeal.
In September 1940, the British Technical Mission headed by Sir Henry Tizard,
NDRC received a report from British that although Britishers were consuming
thousands of vacuum tubes manufactured by two largest manufacturers of vacuum
tubes in US towards the development of fuze, but they had not yet made a workable
fuze. Both the US and the British considered similar approaches as follows:
(a) A radio fuze that would sense the proximity of the aircraft
(b) A radio fuze tracked by anti-aircraft guns radar that would be triggered from the
ground when its range was the same as that of the target.
(c) An acoustical fuze actuated by dominant resonance of the aircraft engine and
propellers.
(d) An optical fuze actuated by the photodetector current at the frequency of
projectiles rotation, in the presence of ambient light.
2
The Tizard Mission showed a fuze circuit that had been developed by UK
scientists, to the DTM Group and Dr Roberts made a copy of the circuit the day after
receiving it and its performance impressed the Group so much that the British approach
gained high priority, especially as it showed promise of miniaturization.
The basis of the fuze was an 80 MHz free running Hartley oscillator with its output
connected between the body of the projectile and a metal nose cone. The plate current
of the oscillator developed a voltage across the load resistance in the plate circuit. This
voltage was fed through a low-pass filter to a two-stage audio amplifier. The plate
current changed when an object entered the near-field of projectiles radiation pattern,
and this change, which occurred at the Doppler frequency determined by the relative
velocity of the projectile and target, was amplified and applied to a thyratron whose
conduction exploded the shell. The designer of this circuit was the New Zealand born,
W.A.S. Butement, one of the Britains best radar engineer.
Dr Roberts successfully completed two simple experiments within 48 hrs of hearing
about the Navys interest in fuze. He conducted a drop test to simulate high g by
mounting the vacuum tube on lead brick and dropping it on steel plate from the building
roof-top. Tests were quickly extended to a centrifuge and were followed up by firing the
fuze on test-loaded projectile from 37 mm gun on a farm near Vienna, Virginia. The high
g survival tests coupled with successful laboratory tests on Butement circuit, where a
small movement anywhere in the room where the fuze oscillator circuit was loaded with
a quarter wave dipole, causing a relay to actuate, gave tremendous confidence to the
DTM Group.
In April 1941, 35 weeks after the beginning of the project, a fuze oscillator was fired
from the gun. By June 1941, circuit work had been carried to the point where a circuit of
sufficient sensitivity and small enough size to be contained in a fuze body, could be
made. The circuit consisted of an oscillator, a two-stage low frequency amplifier, a
thyratron, and an electric detonator that would initiate the explosive detonation. A dry
battery built by the National Carbon Company was used as a source of power. Switches,
known as setback switches, were used in the fuze to close the battery circuits upon
firing of the projectile. An electrical arming delay was incorporated in the circuit to
prevent arming of the fuze until the tube filaments had heated and the unit had stabilised
after the initial impact of firing. The oscillator radiated a radio frequency signal in the
VHF range. Some of the energy from this radiated field would be reflected back from any
target in the vicinity of the projectile in such a fashion as to vary the load on the
oscillator at Doppler frequency, causing an low frequency signal which was then
amplified by the amplifier and used to trigger the thyratron. The electric detonator in the
thyratron output circuit initiated detonation of the auxiliary detonator which exploded
the explosive charge.
In September 1941, tests of complete fuzes were started at Naval Proving Grounds,
Dahlgren, in the 5 inch 38 calibre projectile. Early Dahlgren tests were not very
successful, primarily because of premature failures/short bursts. At this time, a double
filament triode tube was being used as an oscillator, and it was discovered that
vibrations between these two filaments produced low frequency noise due to
microphonics within the audio frequency pass band of the amplifier and were probably
the cause of the premature bursts.
3
In the fall of 1941, the Sylvania Company was brought into the tube program and it
contributed greatly towards the development of improved tubes. By January 1942, a test
conducted at Dahlgren gave slightly better than 50 per cent successful firing, and which
was considered to be adequate to bring a manufacturer in the program. At this time, a
development contract was given to the Crosley Corporation to produce the fuze.
1.3 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT WORK AT APPLIED PHYSICS

LABORATORY1
The growth of the project was so enormous that it required increased
administrative support. In March 1942, Tauve Group was placed directly under the
control of Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) and a new
organisation was formed, the Applied Physics Laboratory with John Hopkins
Laboratory sponsoring the work. Tauve became the first Director. After the initial
success of vacuum tubes to withstand hostile environment of artillery shell, contracts
were placed on Sylvania for the design of very small tubes with strengthened electrode
structure. Dry cells used in initial firing deteriorated rapidly in storage. Reserve battery,
in which the electrolyte in sealed ampoules was released when the glass ampule was
shattered on firing and spun into the electrodes, was developed.
On 12 August 1942, test firing from USS Cleveland at radio-controlled target
brought down the only two targets available. On January 1943, USS Helena brought
down a Japanese bomber on the fifth round using industrially produced fuze, 28 months
after initiation of the project. The unprecedented success came from strict quality
control, test firing of several fuzes from production batches, and rejection of lots with
blinds beyond five per cent. The fuzes maintained strict reliability standards and were
made bore-safe incorporating multiple safety measures.
Field artillery had long used time fuzes for producing air burst over ground targets
requiring visual observation of the range, accurate gun placement, and flat trajectory.
The accuracy requirement of the fuzes were even more severe for Howitzer where
shells descended at high angles to the ground. The optimum height of burst was also
dependent on the shell calibre. The anti-aircraft proximity fuze was thus ideal for field
artillery shells. Proximity fuze were modified and adapted for field artillery shells.
1.4 DEVELOPMENT WORK AT NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 2,3

Early in the project, it was decided that there were significant design differences
with spinning and non-spinning projectiles. The development work of fuzes for non-
spinning projectiles bombs, rockets, and mortars was carried out by Division-4 of
the NDRC, OSRD under the chairmanship of Dr Alexander H Ellett. The heart of
Division-4, the control laboratory, was a group at National Bureau of Standards under
the leadership of Dr Harry Diamond, a group later known as Ordinance Development
Division. In November 1940, Dr Ellett from the University of Iowa had come to
Washington to work with Tauve at DTM and a few weeks later, to initiate work at NBS on
proximity fuzes for bombs and rockets. In December 1940, Ellett secured the services of
Diamond and Hinman for Radio Section at NBS. Diamond/Hinman team quickly realised
that the fuze using Doppler effect was the most promising concept. A series of crude
models proved the principle, culminating in successful bomb drops in April and May 1941.
4
In May 1942, the Army stated its first definite and urgent requirement for a
proximity fuze for the new 4.5 inch rocket to be used against German aircraft. Diamond
team completed the design in two days. NBS and Westinghouse produced initial model
lot and tested 55 of these fuzes at Fort Fisher, North Carolina, in June 1942. In December
1942, Diamond/Hinman team was reorganised and enlarged as the Ordinance Division
with about 200 people developing proximity fuzes for rockets and bombs. At the end of
war, over 400 people were working on the project. About 400,000 of each type were
manufactured during 1942 but none were used as intended because the threat from
German bombers had subsided. NBS Team solved several problems encountered in
bomb fuzes, notably low-temperature problem at high altitudes and battery problem by
developing a spinning turbine generating power for the fuze.
1.5 TESTS 2
On 29 January 1942, a group of fuzes with miniaturised components and dry cell
batteries, built on a pilot production line, were installed in standard 5 inch anti-aircraft
projectiles and fired from a 5 inch 38 calibre anti-aircraft gun. At the end of a 8 km
trajectory better than 50 per cent had successfully activated themselves by proximity to
water. The Bureau directed the Crosley Corporation to commence pilot production of
the fuzes without delay. The name that was assigned was the VT fuze, with the VT
standing for variable time.
Development of the VT fuze continued in parallel with the pilot production at the
Crosley Corporation plant. In April 1942, firing tests in which the new reserve battery
developed by National Carbon Company, was utilised were conducted successfully.
A small plane suspended from a barrage balloon was used as the target. Safety and self-
destruction devices were needed to be added to the fuze before it was ready to be used
in war.
In another test, similar to the one conducted on 29 January, it was found that
reliability of the fuze technology resulted in 70 per cent of the shells that detonated. The
next logical step was to conduct a shipboard firing test.
On 12 August 1942, the first time pre-combat service tests were made by the newly
commissioned USS Cleveland. The tests were scheduled to be conducted under
simulated battlefield conditions. All the three available drones were destroyed early on
the first day of tests while going through all possible evasive manoeuvres, by the bursts
of only four proximity fuzed projectiles. This was an amazing success.
In the middle of November 1942, 5,000 rounds of proximity-fuzed projectiles were
carried to Noumea for distribution to the ships of a task force in the southwest pacific.
The first ship to introduce them to the enemy was the USS Helena. On 5 January 1943,
four Japanese bombers attacked the task force and the Helena downed one with the
second salvo of proximity-fuzed ammunition.
1.6 PRODUCTION SCALE-UP

Following the Crosley Corporation contract, production was increased to great
numbers. Beginning in September 1942, newly established facilities commenced
production of the ruggedised miniature tube in large quantities. In October 1942, an
5
average of 500 tubes were being manufactured daily. After the fuze had been proven in
combat, the expansion of manufacturing facilities rapidly increased. By the end of 1943,
almost two million tubes had been delivered. By the end of 1944, 87 contractors,
operating 110 plants, were manufacturing parts of the fuze which at that time were being
delivered at the rate of 40,000 per day. Fuze assembly was concentrated in the plants of
the Crosley Corporation, the Radio Corporation of America, Eastman Kodak Company,
and the McQuay-Norris Company. Mass production of the ruggedised miniature
vacuum tubes had to be limited to Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., since it proved to be
the only firm capable of combining quality and quantity.
1.7 A STRIKING COMBAT SUCCESS 3

During 1943, approximately 9,100 rounds of proximity fuzed and 27,000 rounds of
time-fuzed 5 inch anti-aircraft projectiles were fired. Fifty one per cent of the hits on
enemy planes were credited to VT-fuzed projectiles. The proximity fuze-equipped shells
success in repelling air attacks against fleet units reached its peak when a task group in
the Pacific reported the destruction of 91 of 130 attacking Japanese planes. The VT-
fuzed shells were also used with great success in the Mediterranean and Atlantic
theatres.
In late December 1944, von Rundstedt launched a counterattack, which developed
into the Battle of the Bulge. The use of the fuzes entered a new field, that of artillery
fire against ground forces. The results of this usage was devastating to German troops
and was able to generate fear in their hearts. No longer were their foxholes safe against
shrapnel burst, for with the use of the funny fuze, as it was termed by General Patton,
the shrapnel bursts occurred before the projectiles hit the earth, and high-velocity
fragments rained down on the German attackers.
1.8 ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES 3

Its an interesting historical fact that electronic countermeasures were thought of
and successfully developed during the World War-II. The need to develop
countermeasures against proximity fuzes stemmed from the Germans, who during the
Battle of the Bulge, captured an army munitions dump that contained a large number of
the new radio proximity fuzed shells. Concerned that the Germans might attempt to copy
the proximity fuze, the Research Division of the Aircraft Radio Laboratory at Wright
Field, along with the help of the RLL, was called in to begin the development of jamming
equipment. The proximity fuze was a closely-guarded secret by the US. Even though,
Wright Field Group had been working on the countermeasures for a long time, they had
never heard of the proximity fuzes. Now, they had been asked to develop a
countermeasure against the fuze on crash basis. Interestingly, they had been told that a
group to whom the countermeasure problems has been addressed earlier, had concluded
that the fuzes could not be jammed. The Wright Field Group developed a jammer that
would detonate the proximity fuzes prematurely within a record two weeks time.
The jammer modification of the existing APT-4, high powered jammer consisted of
a motor-driven transceiver which spanned the frequency from 180-220 MHz. A motor-
driven tuner was added to sweep the jamming transmitters signal up and down the band
covered by the fuze. Modified APT-4 was installed in a B-17 bomber and tests were
6
arranged at Eglin to test the countermeasure effectiveness. The tests were carried out
against proximity-fuzed shells from a 90 mm anti-aircraft gun. Interestingly, the
constraint was to use the high explosive-filled shells. So the Group was constrained to
use live-explosive VT-fuzed shells. To avoid damage to B-17, the guns were offset by
small angle of about 1°. It was a sort of test that could not have been carried out in
peace time. However, the risk was worth taking. The tests lasted about three months
during which about 600 VT fuze shells were fired in the direction of B-17. The fuze
radiated continuous wave (CW) signals. The combination of spinning shell with a small
yaw in flight produced the small amplitude modulation on the CW-signal. The
experiment was a success, the pilots and navigators could watch the shells bursting well
below the aircraft. The conclusion was that a modified APT-4 jammer could greatly
reduce the effect of the proximity-fuzed anti-aircraft shell.
1.9 DEVELOPMENT OF PROXIMITY FUZES

The development of proximity fuzes was a formidable effort and it needed all the
ingenuity of the scientists, engineers, both in the development laboratories and at the
production agencies that culminated in the success of the proximity fuze during the
World War-II. By the end of the war, successful fuzes had been developed for anti-
aircraft shells, field artillery shells, rockets, bombs, and mortars. A total 22 million fuzes
were manufactured during the war. By 1945, the production of vacuum tubes for
proximity fuzes was 40,000 per day. Of the 22 million fuzes produced, about a million and
half were used during the war.
General Benjamin Lear, USA, described the VT-Fuze as ...the most important new
development in the ammunition field since the introduction of high-explosive
projectiles. General George Patton, USA, also paid tribute to the fuze developers
stating, I think when all armies get this shell, we will have to devise some new method
of warfare.
1.10 POST-WAR DEVELOPMENTS

By the end of World War-II, ordnance with vacuum tube fuzes had reached such a
level of sophistication that, between the end of World War-II (1945) and the end of the
Korean War (1954), there was limited research and development in new conventional
ordnance. This resulted in very little development of new types of fuzes for the
ordnance used during this time period. The discovery of the transistor, by Walter H.
Brattain and John Bardeen of Bell Laboratories, was made on December 23, 1947.
In 1954, the first fully transistorized radio and computer were built. In 1955,
transistors were available for the first time in production quantities. In 1956
investigations began into the use of transistors in fuze circuits. In 1959, the first
integrated circuit microchip was fabricated. The development of transistors and
microchip technology initiated the replacement of the vacuum tube in proximity fuzes.
The first electronic hybrid (transistors and vacuum tubes) fuze, the M532, was
developed in the early 1960s for a mortar round. The first fully transistorized fuze, the
M429 was developed during 1965-1970 for a 2.75 inch rocket for use in the Vietnam War.
M728 was the first fully transistorized artillery fuze and was developed during the period
between late 1960s to early 1970s.
7
1.11BRIEF HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF PROXIMITY FUZES IN INDIA

(1966-1975)
The variable-time (VT) fuze was an important contribution of World War II and it
was the first ever attempt to introduce electronics in armaments. While the Indian Navy
was using fuzes imported from the UK, the Indian Army did not possess these. Since its
aerial burst was effective against ground troops, the development of the fuze was
undertaken by ARDE. It was the prime contractor and was responsible for the
development of the explosive train. The electronics part was concurrently developed by
two R&D agencies, namely the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) of the
Department of Atomic Energy and by the Solid State Physics Laboratory (SSPL) of
DRDO. The BARC was involved in the development of the VT fuze for the 25 Pounder
gun while the SSPLs involvement was for the development of the VT fuze for the 75/24
Pack Howitzer. The VT fuzes for the 105 mm IFG and the 75/24 Pack Howitzer were
successfully completed and they rolled out of the production line in 1973. For this
project, ARDE had two customers, namely the Army and the Indian Navy, two associate
R&D agencies in development namely BARC and SSPL, and three production
agencies, namely Electronics Corporation of India (fuze for 105 mm IFG) and HAL, both
in Hyderabad and an ordnance factory. It was no easy task for ARDE to finalise in
association with the agencies involved in development and production and with the
User Services, the modalities for testing and proofing the rounds and quality
acceptance procedures. The development work on fuzes continued with BARC and
SSPL and was crowned with success, with BARC involved in the VT fuze for the 76.2 mm
gun for the Navy and SSPL for the VT fuzes for the 130 mm Russian gun for the Army
and the 4.5 inch gun for the Navy.
The development of proximity fuzes for 75/24 Howitzer was assigned to SSPL in the
year 1966. Dr NB Bhatt was the Director of SSPL when the formal project was entrusted
with its design and development. Prof. DS Kothari who was the first Scientific Advisor
of the Minister of Defence and headed the Defence Science Organisation formed in
1958. Right from the inception of the project, Dr DS Kothari took keen interest in the
development of proximity fuze and monitored its development even after his successor
Prof Bhagavantam had taken over as Scientific Advisor in 1961. Dr BD Nagchaudhari
who took over as the Scientific Advisor on 1st July 1970 took tremendous interest in the
development of proximity fuzes and was great source of inspiration to the author and
the team which successfully developed the proximity fuzes for 75/24 Howitzer shell.
Major General JR Samson who was the Chief Controller of the Defence R&D
Organization was a key driving force. His keen interest in the development of fuzes
provided tremendous impetus to the progress of the project.
Some exploratory work on VT Fuzes was being carried out by a small team in a
group in Defence Science Laboratory situated in the Metcalfe House complex called the
Radar Research Wing under Dr NB Bhatt who later became the Director of SSPL situated
at Metcalfe House. This exploratory work continued at SSPL after shifting to Lucknow
Road but unfortunately no success on VT fuzes had been achieved.
Soon after the formal sanction of the project to develop a proximity fuze was
sanctioned to SSPL in early 1966, Dr NB Bhatt requested the R&D Headquarters that the
author be called from DRDL, Hyderabad to lead the fuze project. The author had worked
in the Special Weapons Development Team (SWDT) co-located with the R&D research
8
wing in Metcalfe House with Dr BN Singh as its Director. The author joined SSPL in
March 1966 and with a team of three other young scientists, PC Nagpal, MN Sen,
GJ Chaturvedi and two technicians commenced the work on electronics of the fuze. The
team developed a prototype of CW proximity fuze in three months. The fuze electronics
developed consisted of a Colpitts oscillator at 220 MHz using an epoxy encapsulated
RF transistor, Doppler amplifier, a Schmitt threshold circuit and a transistor switch to
ignite the detonator. The fuze oscillator detector was tested for its sensitivity by using
a horizontally moving aluminium reflector in the vicinity of fuze. The complete
electronics was encapsulated. The oscillator was encapsulated in low density
polyethylene. The remaining circuit was encapsulated in an epoxy resin. The electronics
was embedded in a plastic nose cone with a metal cap on top of the nose cone which in
conjunction with shell body would work as a quarter wave monopole antenna.
The complete electronics was tested for its ruggedness by the drop test. The fuze
was fitted on a 25 pound dummy shell and dropped in a guided steel tube over a metal
block from the roof top of a 40 feet high building. The electronics withstood the g test
estimated to be several thousand gs.
The fuze was powered with a dry battery of 22.5 V. The first few fuzes were designed
to function with a 25 pound smoke shell (and tuned to appropriate frequency of
oscillator with this shell) at Proof and Experimental Establishment (PXE) at Chandipore
on sea at Balasore in Orissa. The fuze in its first firing failed. It was soon discovered from
the recovery of the fuzed shells that the fuze had failed due to its defective
encapsulation of the battery in wax. Wax as the encapsulant of the battery was replaced
with a polyester resin. In the second test carried out with this encapsulation of the
battery and without any changes in electronics, in September 1966, the fuze was fired at
charge II of 25 pounder shell. The fuze achieved air bursts over the sea as could be seen
from the beautiful flash of the smoke shell. The fuze had made a history in September
1966, as this was first successful fuze developed by the DRDO. From this point onwards
there was no looking back.The process of improvements to withstand shocks on higher
charges were carried out. The fuzes using new nose cones fabricated from glass filled
polypropylene were successfully fired with high explosive shells right upto the charge
IV of 75/24 Pack-How shell. The sensitivity of the fuzes was improved using optimized
oscillator-detector. Also a new reserve battery suggested by the author had been
developed by this team during 1969. The system consisted of a single cell using carbon-
zinc system with chromic acid/stannic chloride electrolyte in conjunction with a DC-DC
converter capable of satisfactory operation from 1.5 volts. This was the first
development of a single cell battery in India and perhaps in the world for fuze
applications, as no other fuze was known to have used a single cell system.
Concurrent with the development of the fuze, a new technique called the hoist gear
technique was developed in end 1966. The author and his team developed a completely
new system of measuring the oscillator sensitivity of fuzes wherein the oscillator
transmitted its own collector current information to a ground telemetry receiver. The
shell was hoisted above the ground over a water pond and suspended with a nylon rope
and moved over few wavelengths at a mean height of about ten metres, variations in the
oscillator collector current was monitored by a telemetry receiver..This was a new
innovation far superior to various contemporary methods of determining the fuze
sensitivity .
9
The technical trials of the fuze were conducted at PXE, Balasore in March 1971 and
School of Artillery, Devlali in May 1971, more than a hundred fuzes were fired with a
success rate of 90 per cent. The first phase of user trials was conducted at Devlali in
September 1971, more than hundred fuzes were fired with a success of 80 per cent. The
analysis of the user trial results indicated that the fuze did not meet the reliability
requirements at higher charges. This was intriguing as the fuze had undergone a
successful technical trial. Investigations and improvements were carried out. In the
phase II of user trials at Devlali, fifty fuzes were fired and forty eight fuzes functioned
perfectly. Having met the GSQR, the fuze was formally accepted by the user for its
induction into services. The fuze technology was transferred to Hindustan Aeronautic
Laboratory (HAL), Hyderabad in 1973. In 1974, HAL fired a pre-production lot of fuzes
successfully. The manufacturing agency produced several thousand fuzes
subsequently.
The team later in 1975 developed a 4.5 Naval anti-aircraft fuze in a record nine
months period and tested it at PXE, Balasore against a standard metal sphere.
Interestingly in one of the tests carried out at that time when a foreign made 4.5 fuzes
was also being tested at the range, the indigenous fuze produced better results than the
imported fuzes. Nine of ten fuzes functioned in the proximity of the spherical target.
REFERENCES
1. Moye, W.T. Developing the proximity fuze and its legacy. U.S. Army Material
Command Historical Office. February, 2003.
2. Brown, L. Origins of the proximity fuze. IEEE MTT-S, 1998, 8.
3. Brown, L. The proximity fuze. IEEE, AES System Magazine, 1993, 7.
4. Sharpe, E.A. The radio proximity fuze - a survey. SMEC, 2003.
5. Shenoy, P. Ramadass. Defence Research & Development Organisation: 1958-82.
Defence Scientific Information & Documentation Centre. Delhi, 2006, pp. 280.
6. Radio Proximity (VT) Fuzes: Department of the Navy-Naval Historical Centre,
Washington.
10
Chapter 2
Proximity Fuzes: An Overview
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fuze is that part of explosive military munition (such as a field artillery shell, anti-
aircraft shell, bomb, rocket, or a missile) which detects the presence of target and
detonates the explosive at an appropriate range. An ideal fuze would detonate the
projectile at the most favourable position to inflict maximum damage to the target.
Proximity fuzesalso called target detection devicesare electronic fuzing systems that
detonate the ammunition automatically upon approach to the target and at such a
position along the flight path so as to inflict maximum damage to the target. Optimum
burst point against an aerial target could be closest point of approach to the aircraft or
an optimum point according to some preset criteria by the signal processing algorithm.
Against the ground or surface targets, the proximity fuze should burst at the optimum
height depending upon the nature of the target and the properties of the shell or the
missile. The optimum burst height varies from 2 m to 20 m for fragmentation and blast
bombs and is about 100 m for a chemical warfare bomb. For an 81 mm mortar, the
optimum height of burst is around 3 m, and for a field artillery shell of 155 mm calibre,
optimum height would be about 12 m.
Early proximity fuzes developed during World War II, used continuous wave
(CW) Doppler RF techniques to detonate the shell when it reached closest to the
airborne target or a preset optimum height of burst in case of ground fuzes. In a CW
Doppler proximity fuze, the fuze, with the shell acting as an antenna or using a separate
antenna; radiates a CW radio frequency signal at the VHF, UHF or microwave
frequencies towards the target. When the shell approaches the target, a part of the
incident radiation is intercepted by the target and is reflected or scattered back towards
the fuze, the reflected signal undergoes a Doppler shift. The receiver extracts the
Doppler signal and it is this Doppler signal that is used after signal processing to
detonate the shell. Early CW fuzes used self-oscillating-detectors and used the shell
body as the antenna. The Doppler signal is amplified by an amplifier with a suitable
Doppler pass band, and when the amplified Doppler signal reaches a predetermined
threshold, a firing circuit delivers a high current pulse to the fuze detonator, exploding
the shell.
The CW Doppler fuzes using solid-state devices continued to be used till early
1980s with improvements in self oscillating detectors, signal processing, packaging,
reserve batteries, and safety and arming devices. The following are the fundamental
shortcomings of CW fuzes:
(a) The fuze frequency had to be set according to the length of the ammunition with
which it was used because the ammunition body works as a quarter wave dipole
antenna.
(b) The height of burst in the ground fuzes was dependent on the parameters of the
ground surface such as the reflection coefficient and the roughness of the ground
terrain. Many designs tried to solve this problem by setting the height of burst
mechanically before firing the fuze, depending upon the anticipated ground
condition. As an example, a fuze against wet ground would be set for low sensitivity
while a fuze over a desert would be set for high sensitivity. Some innovative
processing techniques were also attempted.
(c) CW fuzes were highly susceptible to electronic countermeasures. In fact,
demonstrations by a swept RF Jammers had already proved the efficacy of jamming
of CW fuzes during the World War II itself.
To overcome these shortcomings, new fuzes were developed, and in the last three
decades, the proximity fuzes have undergone tremendous improvements on all fronts,
viz., RF techniques, packaging techniques, improved power sources, safety and arming
mechanisms, and also significantly, the signal processing techniques. In the evolution
of the fuzes, one of the areas where greatest stress has been given is to make the fuzes
immune to electronic countermeasures. The most recent developments in the fuzing
technology are the use of laser proximity fuzes, which have enhanced the accuracy of
the fuzes tremendously and also possess high degree of immunity to electronic
countermeasures (ECM).
The current chapter gives an overview of the radar and laser proximity fuzes. It
gives a broad view of the various radar and laser techniques that have been used and
are being currently used in the target proximity detection. Subsystems of fuzes, the type
of antennas, RF oscillators, reserve power sources, and safety and arming techniques
are also briefly discussed. The evolution of fuzes over the last four decades has also
been briefly described.
2.2 BASICS OF PROXIMITY FUZES

The basics of proximity fuzes are best understood from the block diagram of a
typical fuze shown in Fig. 2.1. The major subsystems of the proximity fuze are:
PROXIMITY SIGNAL GATED FIRING DETONATOR SAFETY AND

SENSOR PROCESSOR CIRCUIT ARMING DEVICE
To Fuze Circuits To Fuze Circuits
RESERVE MICRO-
BOOSTER
BATTERY CONTROLLER
Figure 2.1. Block diagram of a typical proximity fuze.
12
Proximity Fuze Overview
(a) Proximity sensor,

(b) Signal processor,
(c) Detonator firing circuit,
(d) Reserve power supply,
(e) Safety and arming device,
(f) Impact switch, and
(g) Microcontroller.
2.2.1 Proximity Sensor

Function of the proximity sensor is to detect the target and generate a signal which
carries the range information. The range signal corresponds to the time delay between
the transmission of the RF signal and the receipt of the echo from the target. The sensor
extracts the range information by transmitting an RF/microwave signal which is
suitably modulated or phase encoded. The proximity sensor typically comprises
modulated/encoded oscillator, which is modulated by a waveform generator, an
antenna, a circulator and receiver mixer. The modulated oscillator feeds the common
transmit-receiver antenna through the circulator. The echo from the target is mixed
with a reference signal from the transmitter in the receiver mixer to produce a signal
which carries the range information. As an example, in the FMCW system, the
frequency of microwave oscillator is linearly modulated in a sawtooth form and
transmitted through an antenna. The FMCW signals are scattered by the target, and
only a fraction received by the target is re-radiated towards the fuze and received by the
fuze receiver. The difference between the transmitted and the received frequency,
called the beat frequency, is a measure of the range of the target.
2.2.2 Signal Processor

The basic function of a signal processor is to compare the range signal from the
proximity sensor with a reference signal corresponding to the signal which would be
received from a target at the desired range, and depending upon the comparison,
generates an activation signal to fire a detonator to activate the payload/explosive.
Taking an example of FMCW system, the signal processor would comprise a beat
frequency amplifier-filter and a frequency counter to count the beat frequency during
one period of FMCW modulation waveform. The received counts are compared to a
preset count corresponding to the desired target range. Firing circuit is activated when
the received counts equal the preset count. Signal processing circuit can be quite
complex, because the current fuzes function in an electronic countermeasure (ECM)
environment. Thus, the signal processor also has to carry out functions to minimise the
effect of ECM interference. In a complex target, such as an airborne target, the signal
processor may have to use Fast Fourier Transform techniques to extract the desired
range information.
2.2.3 Detonator Firing Circuit

Detonator firing circuit fires the detonator on receiving a command signal from the
signal processor. Firing circuit is gated and blocks the signal until the gate is opened,
either after a preset time or by a command from a microcontroller. In current fuzes, the
13
fuzes are not activated until a few seconds before the time to reach the target. The gate
blocking time therefore will be set at the time of launch of ammunition by a fuze setter.
Gated firing circuit can also be controlled so that the proximity action can be
permanently disabled if such a situation arises.
2.2.4 Reserve Power Supply

The fuze is powered by a reserve battery or a reserve power source. Reserve
power source in fuzes for spinning shells is typically a spin-dependent reserve battery,
which is activated only at the time of firing the ammunition. Two most common types
of reserve batteries are the lead-hydrofluoboric acid and lithium-thionyl chloride
batteries. For non-spinning ammunition like rockets and bombs, a miniature air-driven
turbine generator is used as the power source.
2.2.5 Safety and Arming Device
Safety and arming device interrupts the path between the detonator and the booster
pellet/explosive train using a shutter until the safety and arming device is armed. As an
example, in a field artillery or anti-aircraft fuze, an axial as well as a radial acceleration
is required to release the blocking mechanism in the safety and arming device. The
explosive train comes in line with detonator after a fixed delay which enables the shell to
clear the gun by the required safe distance, typically between 40120 m from the gun.
2.2.6 Impact Switch
Proximity fuzes also incorporate a point detonation backup in case of proximity
failure. This function is achieved using a fast acting impact switch, generally located in
fuze nose cone, which activates the firing circuit when the fuze hits the target. The
impact switch also remains disabled until the fuze has cleared the gun.
2.2.7 Microcontroller
As the fuze operation becomes more and more complex, the control functions,
which in the earlier fuzes were hardware-controlled, are now being controlled by a
microcontroller. Microcontroller carries out a number of functions such as reading the
safety switches to arm the firing circuits at the appropriate time, blocking the firing
circuit for a time set by the fuze setter, activates the firing circuit on receiving a
command from the signal processor, and also carries out the fuze self-check. In
complex microcontrollers, some of the signal processing functions are also carried out.
2.3 RADAR PROXIMITY FUZES

Radar proximity fuzes use following waveforms and techniques:
(a) Continuous wave system,
(b) FMCW system,
(c) Phase-coded modulated system,
(d) Noise-modulated system,
2.3.1 Continuous Wave Proximity Fuze

Doppler effect is the basis of a Continuous Wave (CW) proximity fuze. When a
radio signal is reflected from an object which is moving towards or away from the
14
radar/fuze, its frequency is shifted causing the received echo to be at a slightly different
frequency from the transmitter frequency. This is the Doppler shift. Consider a fuze
transmitting at a frequency f0, towards the target which is moving towards the fuze at a
radial velocity Vr, the component of radial velocity directly towards or away from the
fuze. When the target is closing, by definition, the velocity is positive. To calculate the
Doppler shift in the received signal, one notices that phase shift, φ between the
received signal relative to the transmitted signal during its transit to and from the target
is as given in Eqn. (2.1)
4πR
φ= (2.1)
λ
since, one wavelength difference corresponds to a phase shift of 2 π , where, R = one-
way radial distance between the fuze and the target, λ = wavelength of the emitted
radiation.
If the target is in motion, R and thus φ are continuously changing. Time derivative
of φ is the change in the angular frequency, ωd .
dφ
= ωd = 2πf d (2.2a)
dt
4π dR
ωd = (2.2b)
λ dt
from Eqns (2.2a) and (2.2b)
2Vr
Therefore, f d = (2.3)
λ
The Doppler shift is the basis of CW proximity fuze. Consider a CW fuze as
shown in Fig. 2.2, the fuze transmitter/oscillator generates a continuous frequency of f0
which is radiated by the antenna. A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the
target and is scattered. Some of it is in the direction of the fuze, where it is received by
the antenna. If the target is in motion with a relative velocity Vr relative to fuze, the
received signal is shifted in frequency from the transmitter by an amount ± fd as given
by the Eqn. (2.3). The plus sign applies if the distance between the target and the fuze is
decreasing, i.e., closing target. The frequency received by the fuze is greater by fd
relative to transmitted frequency. Similarly, negative sign applies to the receding target.
The received echo signal at f0 ± fd enters the fuze through its antenna and is mixed in
the mixer to extract the Doppler shift. This is classical homodyne reception. The weak
Doppler signal is amplified by the Doppler amplifier and fed to a threshold detector. It
is important to realise that the magnitude of the Doppler signal at the output of the
mixer will increase as the fuze approaches the target. It is well known that the received
power is proportional to 1/R4 in case the target is a point scatterer and as 1/R2 in case of
extended target (ground). When the fuze is sufficiently close to the target, the output of
15
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.2. (a) CW Doppler proximity fuze, ( b) self oscillator mixer.
the Doppler amplifier becomes high enough to exceed the threshold of the threshold
detector. The output of the threshold detector feeds the detonator firing circuit
initiating the chain of explosives and exploding the high explosive of the munition. A
CW fuze using a self oscillator mixer is shown in Fig. 2.2 b.
2.3.1.1 Ranging with CW Fuze
The CW fuzes utilize the Doppler shift in conjunction with the amplitude of the
Doppler signal at the mixer output. The CW Doppler system inherently measures the
relative velocity of the fuze relative to the target. It is a well known radar principle that
the range resolution ΔR of the radar is inversely related to the bandwidth (BW) of the
radar transmitter.
ΔR α 1/ BW (2.4)
Since in CW radar, bandwidth approaches zero, theoretically there is no range
resolution at all. The ability to practically measure/estimate range with some accuracy
using the amplitude of the Doppler signal is thus indeed the cornerstone of the CW
proximity fuze. The strength of the received Doppler system depends on the following
three factors:
(a) Parameters of the fuze transmitted power, antenna radiation pattern and its
receiving cross-section, mixer gain/loss, the gain of the Doppler amplifier, and
threshold level of the threshold detector,
(b) The distance R between the target and the fuze,
(c) The properties of the target The radar cross-section (RCS) of the target. The
16
RCS of extended ground target is dependent on the reflection coefficient of the

ground and roughness of the ground surface. The RCS of an aerial target is dependent
on its size and geometry.
The fuze-dependent parameters are measurable and controllable, and despite
spreads in the parameters, the overall sensitivity the received signals at specified
range from a reference target of the fuze can be adjusted within fairly narrow limits.
If the properties of the target, i.e., RCS can be estimated fairly accurately or the
fuze sensitivity can be preset depending upon the target RCS estimate, the amplitude of
the returned signal can be predicted as a function of range and the fuze can be made to
function at a preset range. In the airborne target, one can estimate the point of closest
approach by measuring the Doppler frequency and amplitude variation as the fuze flies
past the target. In fuzes against ground target, estimates of scattered returns are
difficult. The spread of height of burst can be as high as 1:5 or even more, depending
on the reflection coefficient of ground surface and ground surface roughness. It is
pertinent that despite these limitations, CW fuzes have been successfully used in a
wide range of munitions against both the ground targets and the aerial targets. Millions
of CW fuzes were manufactured during World War-II with spectacular results. CW
fuzes continued to be the basis of proximity fuzes, right up to the late 1970s, though
with a large number of improvements over the earlier fuzes.
2.3.1.2 Limitations of CW Fuzes

Despite the best efforts to advance the CW proximity fuze, the two major
shortcomings of CW fuzes nevertheless remained:
(a) The height or the point of burst cannot be controlled accurately even with the best
of signal processing.
(b) The CW Doppler fuzes can be easily jammed by a suitable jammer to cause a
premature burst of the fuze. This stems from the fact that the transmitter bandwidth
of the CW fuzes is extremely small and fuze can be detonated prematurely using
spot and repeater jammers fairly easily. It is interesting that CW fuze jamming had
been successfully demonstrated by the fuze developers themselves during the war.
The CW fuzes gradually became obsolete and were used in a few cases where
extreme simplicity was required and where an EW threat didnt exist. The quest to
overcome these two fundamental problems gave rise to FMCW fuzes.
2.3.2 FMCW Fuzes1

The inability of CW system to measure range is related to the narrow bandwidth of
the transmitted wave form. Therefore, a finite spectrum must necessarily be transmitted
if the transit time or range has to be measured. This implies that some form of
modulation needs to be applied to the CW carrier to broaden its spectral width. The
spectrum of CW transmission can be broadened by application of modulation-either
amplitude, frequency or phase. An example of amplitude modulation is the pulse radar.
The narrower the transmitted pulse to broaden its spectral bandwidth, the more
accurate is the measurement of range. A widely used technique to broaden the CW
radar is to frequency modulate the carrier. The changing frequency is a time mark on
the transmitted waveform. The difference in the frequency between the transmitted and
the received echo is proportional to the transit time. The greater the transmitted
17
frequency shift in a given time interval, the more accurate is transit time measurement,
and greater the spectral width of the transmitted signal.
FMCW technique has been used extensively in radar altimeters and obstacle
avoidance systems and has proved to be a powerful technique in proximity fuzes for
accurate range determination. With few exceptions, FMCW is the contemporary
technique in fuzes for the measurement of height of fuze above the ground target and
the range (miss-distance) in case of an aerial target. Using suitable modulation
waveforms and suitable frequency deviation, high range accuracy can be obtained in a
range of fuze applications. Basically, the frequency modulation can take many forms.
Three important frequency modulation techniques employed are:
(a) Linear frequency modulation,
(b) Sinusoidal frequency modulation,
(c) Frequency modulation by noise.
Both linear and sinusoidal frequency modulations have been used in proximity
fuzes. To understand the basics of FMCW, consider a linear or a saw tooth modulation,
FMCW waveform is shown in Fig. 2.3.
The f 0 frequency of carrier is linearly varied in saw tooth form by a modulation
signal at frequency fm. The maximum frequency deviation or excursion of the signal is
denoted as Δf . If the reflecting object is stationary and at a distance R from the
transmitter, the echo signal will return after a time of 2R/c. The dashed curved shown in
the figure is plot of echo signal. If the echo signal is heterodyned or mixed with a
portion of transmitted signal in a mixer, a beat note fb corresponding to transit time will
Figure 2.3. FMCW waveforms.
18
result. The frequency is swept by an amount Δf during half the modulation period,
i.e., 1/2fm. The rate at which the frequency is swept is therefore 2 Δf fm. During the
transit time of echo, the transmitted frequency would have shifted by sweep rate times
the transit time. The beat frequency fb would therefore be
2 R 4R Δff m
fb = 2Δf f m = (2.5)
c c
For given parameters, Δf and fm, the beat frequency is proportional to range. This
forms the basis of FMCW proximity fuzes.
The beat frequency can be measured in a number of diverse ways:
(a) By a counter which would count the number of beat frequency cycles in one
modulation period.
(b) Narrow bandpass beat frequency filters.
(c) Digital estimation using Fast Fourier Transform techniques (FFT).
In the above discussion, the target was assumed to be stationary. However, in
practice, the targets are moving and a Doppler shift also results in addition to beat
frequency on account of frequency modulation. If the target is approaching the
transmitter, the received signal will be shifted by an amount of Doppler shift as shown
in Fig. 2.4. During the up sweep time, the beat frequency will be shifted down by an
amount of Doppler shift and during the down sweep time, it will be shifted up by
Doppler shift.
Figure 2.4. FMCW waveforms in case of moving target.
19
f b (up ) = f b − f d (2.6)
f b (down) = f b + f d (2.7)
If the average beat frequency is determined by counting the number of cycles in

one period of modulating frequency, the number of counts in one period would remain
unaltered by a moving target. The velocity of the target, relatively unimportant in the
proximity fuze, could however be calculated by counting beat cycles separately during
two half periods of modulation waveform and taking the difference. In general, in
proximity fuzes, fb is much greater than fd. However, it does imply that if the beat
frequency is estimated using filters, filter bandwidth will have to take into account the
Doppler shift in addition to bandwidth broadening by modulation frequency fm.
2.3.2.1 Quantisation Errors in the FMCW Systems
The absolute accuracy of the FMCW fuze is very important for fuzes functioning
at low heights over the ground. Errors of half a metre can be important in low height
fuzes used in the mortars.
The theoretical accuracy with which distance can be measured depends upon the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal and the ratio of signal energy to noise energy. In
addition, measurement accuracy might be limited by such practical restrictions as the
accuracy of the frequency-measuring device, sweep non-linearity, and the frequency
error due to the turnaround of the frequency modulation.
A common form of frequency measuring device is the frequency counter, which
measures the number of cycles or half cycles of the beat frequency during the
modulation period. The total cycle count is a discrete number since the counter is
unable to measure fractions of a cycle. The discreteness of the frequency measurement
gives rise to an error called the fixed error, or step error. It has also been called the
quantisation error. The average number of cycles N of the beat frequency, fb, in one
period of modulation cycle fm is fb / f m where the bar over fb denotes time average.
Eqn. (2.4) may be rewritten as
cN
R= (2.8)
4Δf
where R is range (altitude), m, c is velocity of propagation, m/s, and Δf is frequency
excursion, Hz.
Since the output of the frequency counter N is an integer, the range will be an
integral multiple of c/(4 Δf ) and will give rise to a quantisation error equal to
c
δR = (2.9)
4Δf
or,
75
δR(m) = (2.10)
Δf (MHz)
20
Note that the fixed error is independent of the range and carrier frequency and is a
function of the frequency excursion only. Large frequency excursions are necessary if
the fixed error is to be small.
Figure 2.5 illustrates a typical FMCW system using common antenna both as
transmitter and receiver. An example will illustrate the basics of the linear FMCW
system. Consider an FMCW system operating at a centre of f0 = 2 GHz which is being
linearly modulated with modulation frequency of 10 KHz and produces a frequency
deviation of Δf = 200 MHz, approaching ground with a velocity (vertical component)
300 m/s).
Figure 2.5. A typical FMCW fuze.
Calculate,
(a) Mean beat frequency at a height of 12 m
(b) Doppler shift
(c) Quantisation error.
Using Eqn. (2.5)
4 R Δf f m
fb =
c
f> = 320 KHz

Doppler shift = 2ν / λ = 4 KHz
Quantization error = δR = c/4 ΔB

= 37.5 cm
21
The example illustrates, that with the typical parameters assumed above, fuze
height of burst of 12 m can be obtained with quantization error of the order of half
metre.
2.3.2.2 Features of FMCW Fuzes
FMCW fuzes possess a large number of excellent features, which make FMCW
waveforms as one of the most suitable modulation waveforms used in the fuzes. It will
be safe to state that most fuzes today for conventional ammunition (i.e., excluding
some missile application) use the FMCW fuzes. The excellent features are:
(a) Simple solid-state transmitters,
(b) Resistance to ECM,
(c) Good range resolution,
(d) Signal processing can be carried out using FFT techniques.
The advantages of FMCW system are obtained at the cost of very careful design,
which needs to address some of the problems encountered in a single antenna
proximity fuze, viz.,
(a) The leakage signal entering the receiver via coupling between common transmitter
and receiver antenna due to reflections from antenna and imperfect isolation of
circulator in a single antenna system. This can limit the ultimate receiver sensitivity.
In single antenna system, this is on account of the limited isolation in a circulator
and antenna mismatch.
(b) The sensitivity of FMCW radar is limited by the noise accompanying the transmitter
signal which leaks into the receiver. Although advances have been made in reducing
the AM and FM noise generated in voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs), the noise
is usually of sufficient magnitude compared with the echo signal to require some
means of minimising the transmitter noise and leakage that finds its way into the
receiver. The techniques of achieving low phase noise in the VCOs for FMCW
systems are discussed in Chapter on Fuze Oscillator.
2.3.3 Phase Coded Modulation Systems

As discussed, an unmodulated CW radar cannot resolve the target in range. Some
form of modulation is required for range measurements. FMCW is an excellent
waveform that has been used in fuzes. The ability of radar system to resolve target in
range depends on the auto-correlation function of the transmitted modulation. To get
good range resolution, the auto-correlation function must have narrow peaks, which
are separated by delays, which are greater than the round trip time of the most distant
target. In addition, the value of function between peaks should be small compared to
the peak value.
An excellent waveform for modulating the transmitter is a pseudo-random code
generated by a shift register with multiple feedback paths. The auto-correlation
function of the code has a single narrow peak for each code length. The code is easy to
generate. It is only necessary to memorise the code generation logic and not the code
itself. The binary nature of the code makes it easy to perform operations such as
multiplication to evaluate the correlation function.
Realisation of the desirable properties of pseudo-random codes depends on the
manner in which the RF carrier is modulated and demodulated. Phase-reversal
22
modulation is an excellent modulation as it results in little distortion of the code. The

binary pseudo-random code is repetitive waveform, which has a desirable correlation
function. Since the code is quantified both in amplitude and time, it can be
conveniently generated by a shift register with feedback. The pseudo-random sequence
with minimum side lobes for their length are known as optimal sequences.
A group known as maximum length sequence is of interest because it is easy to
generate and can be virtually of any length. It is particularly attractive where signal
encryption is required. A shift register generates maximum length sequence. The code
is determined by placement of taps for the modulo-2-adder.
Bi-phase-coded signals can be generated using a coherent oscillator (COHO) split
into two phases, 0° and 180°. The gates are controlled by the code sequence selector,
and the resulting coded sinusoid is frequency shifted, amplified, and transmitted.
Figure 2.6 shows block diagram of a CW radar using pseudo-random code
modulation. The modulated RF carrier is transmitted by the antenna through circulator.
The received code, amplified by the code amplifier is correlated (multiplied) with
reference code. If the reference code matches the output of the code amplifier, output of
the code demodulator is the Doppler frequency signal, which is integrated in a filter bank
or processed in FFT processor. The noise bandwidth of the system is approximately equal
to bandwidth of the individual Doppler filter.
In its application to proximity fuzes, the received waveform is correlated with the
delayed version of the code, the delay being equal to the transit time from fuze to target
Figure 2.6. Pseudo-random phase coded binary proximity fuze.
23
and back. In some versions, the suitable delayed version of the code is available from
the shift register; in others, the delay of the code is accomplished either in RF or video
delay line. A correlation occurs when the delay is equal to transit time to and from
between the fuze and the target. The correlated signal is then processed by standard
signal processing techniques applied to Doppler signal and used to actuate the fuze.
2.3.4 Noise Modulation Systems

FMCW, pseudo-random binary coded phase-modulated systems have excellent
range resolution and accuracy and possess very good inherent ECCM capability against
noise jammers. However, these systems use repetitive waveforms and hence have
deterministic waveforms. The deterministic characteristics enable intelligent targets,
which carry repeater jammers, to store the fuze signal, delay it beyond the period where
the signal repeats itself and re-transmits the delayed signal back towards the fuze. So that
the target appears closer to the fuze than it actually is. The fuze in such case, typically
detonates the missiles/munition at the range beyond the lethal radius of the weapon.
The search for a non-repetitive waveform has resulted in the development of truly
random noise radar systems that emit a random electromagnetic radiation to the target
to get the target information, i.e., range and velocity. Random noise radar fuze provides
a source of wide band noise, modulating an RF oscillator and transmitting the signal
towards the target. A minute fraction of the radiated signal is scattered back towards
the fuze. A correlator processes cross-correlation between the modulation of the
received signal with the delayed replica of the transmitted modulation on the
transmitted signal delayed by a time equal to twice the transit time between the fuze
and the target. The fuze would function at the peak of the correlation signal. There are
number of techniques of delaying random noise modulation. The techniques of
delaying the reference signal in the case of noise modulation system are more complex
than those discussed for pseudo-random binary codes.
2.4 LASER PROXIMITY FUZES

The ability of lasers to produce high power short pulses, few nanosecond wide,
has made pulsed laser radars very attractive for use as proximity sensors in a wide
range of fuzing applications. Laser range finders for ranging tanks, laser altimeters,
laser distance measurement for surveying and a host of other applications using pulsed
laser radar have been in vogue since 1970. Laser ranging of moon was carried out
using pulsed Q-switched ruby laser in as early as 1964. Intensive developments in the
field of laser proximity fuzes have been carried out in the last two decades culminating
in the development of successful laser proximity fuzes for missiles, smart munitions
and even mortars. A short pulse radar has the following excellent features:
Range Resolution and Accuracy: Short pulse radar is capable of high resolution and
high range accuracy. A 10 ns, pulsed radar would have a range resolution of 1.5 m.
Range accuracies, based on leading edge detection techniques of the received pulses
with good signal-to-noise ratio, could be of the order of 15 cm.
Minimum Range: A short pulse allows the radar to be used at short ranges. 10 ns
pulsed radar could measure ranges as short 1.5 m. High range resolution permits the
individual scattering centres of distributed target to be resolved.
24
Electronic Counter Countermeasure (ECCM) Capability: A short pulse radar can

negate the operation of certain electronic countermeasures and repeater jammers. The
wide bandwidth of short pulse radar has advantages against noise jammers as well.
A short pulse microwave radar is however not without disadvantage. Solid-state
transmitters are peak-power limited. Shorter is the pulse, the lesser is the energy per
pulse, thus limiting range capability. Additionally, a microwave short pulse radar
would have to necessarily use higher frequency bands, further limiting the range.
Pulse compression is the technique for achieving the benefits of the short pulse
within the constraints of peak-power limitations. The pulse compression is achieved
using a chirp FM wave form or phase-coded waveform. The phase-coded waveforms
have been used in missile fuzes application but are too complex for fuzes used for
munitions in general.
The short pulse laser radar avoids the complexity of pulse compression. Lasers are
capable of producing a very high peak power for nanosecond pulses. High power
pulsed laser diodes operating at a wavelength of 0.8 µm to 0.9 µm are capable of
producing peak power approaching 100 W. A 10 W laser with pulse width of 10 ns,
pulse energy of 0.1 μ J, with an average power of 10 mW with 0.1 per cent duty cycle
pulse train, is adequate to achieve a range of tens of metres. Detailed calculations using
range equations show that even a peak power of few watts would be adequate for fuze
application requiring burst height of few metres required for many munitions, such as
mortars. More sophisticated future requirements, particularly for missile application,
are likely to demand increased sensitivity and coverage, enhanced resolution,
enhanced clutter discrimination against clouds and precipitation.
Q-switched, microslab lasers using Nd:Cr:YAG pumped by laser diodes are
capable of producing high peak powers and pulses much narrower than those produced
by laser diodes. Peak power of 5 kW and pulse width of 1 ns (energy pulse of 5 µJ) has
been achieved with such microlasers. These lasers operate at 1.06 µm. In addition to the
short pulse, high peak power advantage of laser ranging, the lasers offer two advantages:
(a) Suitable optics can shape the beam of laser to suit specific mission requirement.
Pencil beams, hollow conical beams can be produced using conventional and
holographic optics.
(b) Laser systems are far more difficult to jam by ECM systems.
The excellent attributes of laser proximity sensors make them ideal in the
following applications:
(a) In fuzes against ground targets, where the angle of descent is close to normal to the
ground and height of burst requirement is of the order of few meters. Short pulse
diode lasers have been recently used in proximity fuzes for mortars. Bomb fuzes is
another potential application.
(b) Fuzes for surface-to-air missiles.
(c) Fuzes against hard targets.
(d) Anti-armour fuzes.
(e) Smart artillery submunition delivered by bombs or long-range laser guided artillery
shells.
There are basically two ranging techniques used for proximity fuzes:
(a) Pulsed time of flight measurements.
(b) Beam modulation telemetry.
25
2.5 PULSED TIME OF FLIGHT METHOD

This method uses lasers with short pulse duration and high peak power, such as
laser diodes and microslab diode pumped Q-switched Nd:Cr:YAG lasers. These laser
ranging systems are used to measure the distance (or range) between the source (where
the ranging systems is located) and some object, which we will call the target. This is
accomplished by
(a) Irradiating the target with a laser pulse from the source transmitter
(b) Detecting reflection of the beam off the target
(c) Measuring the time required for the laser signal to travel from the source to the
target and back to the detector.
A block diagram of this type of laser ranging system is shown in the Fig. 2.7.
Figure 2.7. Laser proximity fuze.

The electronic circuitry measures the time interval from the time the signal leaves
the laser transmitter until it is received back at the detector, and converts the result to a
range. The transmitter and receiver front ends are both optical systems. The
transmitting optical system acts as an antenna to reduce the divergence angle of the
transmitted beam and to aim the beam at the target. The receiver optical system act as
an antenna to collect part of the reflected beam and to condense or focus it onto the
detector. The received laser signals are detected by high speed high sensitivity
photodetectors such as silicon PIN photodiodes or avalanche photodiodes. Photo
detector output is amplified by high bandwidth transimpedance amplifiers and fed to
the ranging electronics circuits, which computes the range of the target.
2.6 BEAM MODULATION TELEMETRY

Beam modulation telemetry, as the name suggests uses laser as a carrier. The
ranging information is encoded on to a UHF or a microwave sub carrier. The sub
carrier amplitude modulates a CW laser source, typically a laser diode. The sub carrier,
as in the radar system could be a continuous wave RF signal, an FMCW RF signal, or a
phase modulated or a noise modulated RF signal. The CW sub carrier system can
26
basically extract the Doppler information. The complex modulation like FMCW and
other modulation systems extracts the range information as well. The reflected laser
beam, amplitude modulated by the sub-carrier is detected by a suitable photodiode and
amplified as in the pulsed laser system. The range and Doppler information contained in
the modulating signal is then processed to extract the velocity and range information. The
beam modulation telemetry ranging systems have two unique features:
(a) They retain all the features of radar system using FMCW or phase-coded waveforms.
(b) Since the sub-carrier information is carried on a laser beam, these systems are
highly immune to electronic countermeasures.
There are, however some limitations of beam modulation telemetry system. It is
difficult to directly modulate the laser diode above 1 GHz. Reduced bandwidth limits
the fuze range accuracy. While the bandwidths can be increased using complex
modulation systems, these systems are too cumbersome to be implemented in compact
proximity fuzes. These systems are currently under development, and have potential
for fuze applications.
2.7 ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES2

The various methods for interfering electronically with the radar or laser
proximity fuzes are called fuze electronic countermeasures. The ECM systems are
broadly classified as active countermeasures or passive countermeasures.
2.7.1 Passive ECM

Passive ECM is any interference technique which does not involve emitting an
electronic jamming signal. Examples, include chaff, decoys, retroreflectors, and any
techniques involving tactics only. The application of passive ECM are very limited in
radar proximity fuzes. In laser proximity fuzes, the use of optical retroreflectors, which
retroreflects laser radiation to create false target can be usefully employed in certain
limited situations.
2.7.2 Active ECM

Active ECM (jamming) is divided into two categories, denial and deceptive.
Active jamming is the principle means of jamming the fuzes. Denial jamming attempts
to deny the use of electromagnetic spectrum to the fuze radar, usually by providing an
excessive jamming signal so that the fuze signal processor are occupied almost totally
with jamming to the exclusion of the target. Denial jamming is carried out basically by
transmitting noise to the fuze. Receiver noise generally limits the sensitivity of the
fuzes. Raising the noise level by external means, as with noise jammer further degrades
the sensitivity of the fuze. Noise is the fundamental limitation to the fuze performance
and therefore can be an effective countermeasure. A jammer whose noise energy is
concentrated within the fuze receiver bandwidth is called Spot Jammer. The spot
jammer can be a potent threat to the fuze if it is allowed to concentrate large power
within the receiver bandwidth.
The effectiveness of the denial jamming against the fuze depends upon whether an
effective Constant False Alarm Receiver (CFAR) circuitry exists within the fuze. If the
CFAR circuit does exist, which is the case with many fuzes, the manifestation of
effective jamming is that the threshold is raised so considerably that the target
vanishes.
27
Several types of jamming signals can be used for denial. Narrow band noise,
which is contained entirely within the fuze bandwidth can be very effective. Very high
amplitude, high bandwidth pulses called impulse jamming are effective against
receivers, which saturate easily.
Deceptive jamming attempts to fool the radar into reporting the target at the wrong
range. An example of a deception countermeasure is the repeater jammer. In the
repeater jammer, the signal received from the fuze is amplified, modified, and returned
to the fuze. The modifier is variable delay system causing the return from the jammer
to appear at different range from the target. The target may be equipped with radar
jamming system such as Digital Radio Frequency Memory system (DRFM), which
store the incoming radar signals in the RF memory and determines the repeat interval
of the signal. The DRFM then emits a signal replicating that expected by the radar
system back to the fuze. The signal emitted by the DRFM is delayed to apparently
arrive before the reflected signal would normally arrive for the given distance between
the fuze and the DRFM. The signal deceives the fuze into determining that the object is
closer than it actually is.
2.7.3 Jammer Objectives

The objectives of Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) against proximity fuze can
be summarised as
(a) To cause a premature burst of the fuze much beyond the lethal radius of the warhead.
(b) To deny or disable the proximity function in case a premature burst cannot be
effected.
(c) Against ground, fuze jammer must attempt a premature burst because the proximity
fuze in any case will burst on the ground since the fuzes are equipped with an
impact sensor.
(d) Against an airborne target in an anti-aircraft fuze, premature burst is desirable but
not necessary since the fuze will pass the target without any harm, if the proximity
fuze function is denied or disabled by the jammer.
To meet the objectives stated above, the fuze jammer requirements can be broadly
listed as
(a) Jammer should be capable of both deception and denial jamming.
(b) The jammer must cater for fuze-to-fuze centre frequency spread. When fuzes with
different centre frequencies are fired in quick succession, the task of jammer is
made even more difficult.
(c) The jammer should be capable of taking on both the radar fuzes and laser fuzes.
2.8 ELECTRONIC COUNTER COUNTERMEASURES2

The primary objective of electronic counter countermeasures (ECCM) technique
when applied to fuzes is to allow the accomplishment of the proper fuze function while
countering the effects of enemy ECM. The fuze ECCM must counter both deception
and noise jamming. To elaborate, the benefits of ECCM techniques may be
summarised as
(a) Prevention of fuze receiver saturation,
(b) Enhancement of signal-to-noise ratio,
(c) Counter the deception jamming.
28
Specific ECCM techniques take place in the fuze sub systems, namely the antenna,
transmitter, receiver, and the signal processor. Suitable blending of these can be
implemented in the fuze as discussed in this section.
2.8.1 Antenna-Related ECCM

The antenna represents the transducer between fuze and the environment. It can be
the first line of defence against jamming. Radars in general use very narrow beams and
thus using antenna directivity in transmission and reception phases allow space
discrimination to be used as ECCM tool. In ground proximity fuzes, the antenna beam
widths are generally large to cater for the range of angles at the which the projectile
carrying fuze encounters the target. The antenna directivity may not offer substantial
protection against the jammer, except in cases where the projectile descent angle close
to normal, where the antenna directivity could be maximum along the axis of shell. In
anti-aircraft fuzes, the antenna can play a very significant ECCM role. In an anti-
aircraft fuze, the optimum point of burst happens to be just past the aircraft front. An
antenna which radiates normal to the axis of projectile and with very little radiation
along the axis of the projectile will offer effective ECCM capability, as the fuze at long
ranges from the aircraft will hardly receive any signal from the jammer.
2.8.2 Transmitter-Related ECCM

The different types of ECCM are related to proper use and control of the power,
frequencies and waveforms of the radiated signals. This can be summarised as
(a) Fuze transmitter power can be increased to defeat the noise jammer, since the
required jammer power is directly proportional to the fuze power.
(b) More effective is the use of complex transmitted signals which place maximum
burden on electronic support measures (ESM) and ECM systems. Different ways
of operation refer to the change of transmitted frequencies as in the frequency-
agility or frequency-diversity systems or the use of wide instantaneous bandwidths.
The objective is to force the jammer to spread its energy over a much wider
bandwidth, resulting in much lower jamming power density, and thus lowering
ECM effectiveness.
A few examples of complex waveform are the wide band FMCW signal, pseudo-
random binary-coded phase-modulation systems and random-noise modulation.
Deception countermeasures have proved very effective against the fuzes. The ECCM
techniques against deception jamming basically attempt to avoid repetitiveness of
the fuze waveforms. PRF jitter in FMCW systems, totally random codes in phase
modulation systems, and fuzes, which use random noise as waveforms counter the
effectiveness of deception jamming.
One of the simplest ECCM techniques that have been traditionally used in
proximity fuzes is to arm the fuze just two to three seconds before the expected
functioning. In fact, the fuze would start to radiate the electromagnetic signals only for
a few seconds in the terminal phases of the projectile. This technique gives too little
time to the jammers in ESM system to analyse the fuze signals and take
countermeasures. The precision delayed arming setting is achieved in current fuzes
using inductive fuze setters to set the arming time at which the fuzes would be active.
29
2.9 ANTENNAS
The proximity fuze antenna is a critical component of the fuze. Proximity fuze for
conventional munitions-shells, mortars, rockets and bombs, etc. invariably use
common antenna for both the transmitter and receiver. First, lack of space and physical
isolation precludes use of two antennas in these fuzes. Secondly, use of a circulator/
hybrid gives enough isolation between transmitter and receiver, to achieve requisite
sensitivities and signal-to-noise ratio. However, in missile fuzes, where the sensitivity
and signal-to-noise ratio requirements are more stringent, physical isolation between
transmitter and receiver antenna may be desirable and also feasible because the
constraints of space are far less severe in missiles. Apart from the basic requirement,
that the fuze antenna must operate as an efficient radiator in transmitter mode, it should
have good receiving cross-section in receiving mode. The fuze antenna must satisfy the
three essential requirements as enumerated below:
2.9.1 Antenna Requirements

2.9.1.1 Antenna Structure
The antenna must be robust, low profile, and amenable to low-cost production.
2.9.1.2 Antenna Bandwidth

The antenna must possess a wide bandwidth to meet the range resolution and
accuracy requirement of the fuze. As discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the
current preferred techniques of radar fuze is the FMCW technique. To get a range
resolution of half a metre the transmitter bandwidth has to be at least 300 MHz. The
antenna therefore must have an impedance bandwidth of at least 300 MHz. For a fuze
operating at 2.4 GHz, this is roughly a bandwidth of 12 per cent. The antenna
bandwidth requirement would however vary depending upon the range resolution and
accuracy in a particular application. Fuzes for low-calibre mortars, where the optimum
height of burst is in the range of one to three metres, higher range accuracies are
required, and consequently, higher antenna bandwidth is required. As a rule of thumb,
it can be stated that the bandwidth required of fuze antenna, would be typically 1015
per cent of the centre frequency. In case of special fuzes, such as ultra-wide band fuzes,
the antenna bandwidth requirement may be much higher.
2.9.1.3 Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern or the directional properties of fuze antennas must meet the
particular requirements of the fuze based on the munitions and trajectory for which it is
used. In fuzes against ground targets, the radiation pattern is dictated by the range of
angles at which the projectile descends on the ground. Fuzes which fall nearly normal
to the ground surface, antenna must radiate preferentially along the axis of the
projectiles, i.e., antenna radiation maximum must be along the projectile axis. Fuzes
for bombs, mortars, and high-angle howitzers fall under this category. For fuzes with
projectiles, which fall at low angles, typically between 10° to 50° with respect to the
ground surface, the antenna should radiate preferably normal to the axis of the shell.
This implies that the antenna directivity should be low and radiation maximum should
lie normal to the projectile axis. Long range field artillery shells and rockets fall in this
category.
30
Applications where the projectile cover a wide angle of descent from about 10° to
near-normal, the antenna should possess a nearly omnidirectional pattern in forward
hemisphere. Some of the howitzers, field artillery shells and rockets belong to this
category.
For fuzes used with anti-aircraft shells and missile against airborne targets, the
radiation pattern requirements are relatively more complex. An approaching anti-
aircraft shell or missile should have low directivity close to the axis. But during bulk of
its trajectory in proximity to the target, where the point of closet approach is reached,
the antenna must have high directivity in the direction normal to the shell. An overall
balance dictates highest directivity normal to the axis of projectile. While this is strictly
true for anti-aircraft shells, many missile fuzes have more complex radiation patterns.
Scanning beams, multiple narrow beams and hollow conical beams are examples of
more sophisticated missile antenna radiation patterns.
2.9.2 Antenna Types3

The types of fuze antennas which meet the above stated requirements, and have
been successfully used in various fuzes are discussed below.
2.9.2.1 Thick λ 4 Monopole Antenna

Thick λ 4 monopole antenna (Fig. 2.8) is a simple, robust and inexpensive
antenna, which meets the requirements of an antenna where the radiation is required
predominately normal to the axis of the fuze. A reasonably thick antenna governed by
its length-to-diameter ratio, λ /d, can give sufficiently wide impedance bandwidth.
Smaller the λ /d ratio, higher is the bandwidth. Typically, λ /d ratio of 200 would give
an impedance bandwidth of about 30 per cent, which meets the bandwidth requirement
adequately.
Figure 2.8. Quarter wave cylindrical monopole antenna.

2.9.2.2 Discone Antenna
Discone antenna is a modification of a quarter wave monopole antenna. By
replacing the quarter wave stub with a disc as shown in Fig. 2.9 and modifying the
ground plane with a cone, a discone antenna is obtained. Discone antenna is
31
0.25 l
0.35 l
0.4 l
Figure 2.9. Typical discone antenna.
characterised by a very wide impedance bandwidth and is an excellent antenna for

fuzes using large waveform bandwidth signals.
2.9.2.3 Loop Antenna
Loop antenna (Fig. 2.10), with circumference approaching one wavelength at
operating frequency possesses excellent transmission and reception characteristics.
The radiation maxima lies normal to the plane of loop meeting the requirements of
fuzes needing strong radiation along the axis of the fuze. If the loop is made sufficiently
thick, wide bandwidth is realisable. A loop mounted on ground plane at appropriate
spacing gives an additional degree of freedom in the design for achieving desired
directivity. A loop mounted close to ground plane gives high directivity while a loop
l/p
h FEEDPOINT
Figure 2.10. Loop antenna over a ground plane.
32
mounted at a fraction of λ , between 0.3 λ and 0.4 λ gives nearly omnidirectional

radiation pattern. The loop antenna is thus very versatile antenna from the point of
view of directional characteristics.
2.9.2.4 Hullahoop or DDRR Antenna
Hullahoop or DDRR antenna (Fig. 2.11), is a closed half wave loop over a ground
plane. A half-wave long wire bent into a circle and short-circuited to ground at one
point is fed by coaxial cable at another point. A half-wave loop antenna is a
modification of the original λ /4 hullahoop to achieve much higher impedance
bandwidth. The basic idea of design is aimed at replacing a quarter wave monopole to
achieve much wider radiation characteristics.
d = l/2p
FEEDPOINT
h
Figure 2.11. Half-wave hullahoop antenna over a ground plane.

Hullahoop design at 1 GHz, using a loop diameter of λ /2 F or about 50 mm, at
optimum height above the ground plane have demonstrated to achieve a bandwidth of
120 MHz. The directional characteristics are nearly omnidirectional, peak gain of 0.2
dB in azimuth and 2 dB in elevation plane have been achieved. Thus, an
omnidirectional radiation pattern with 10 per cent impedance bandwidth would meet
the requirement of many fuzes.
2.9.2.5 Microstrip or Patch Antenna

The basic configuration of microstrip antenna is a metallic patch printed on a thin
ground dielectric substrate as shown in Fig. 2.12(a) and 2.12(b). The patch antenna
which received serious attention in 1970s, has excellent characteristics and is now
being used in military applications such as radar, fuzing, and telemetry. Patch antenna
possess many desirable features which makes it ideal for its use in fuzes. These features
are, low profile, low weight, low cost, direct integration with microwave circuitry and
ability to conform to the host object. The radiation pattern of a single patch peaks
normal to the patch. The directivity is low and one-sided beam width of 45° meets the
requirement of a wide variety of fuze applications. The initial shortcoming of a narrow
impedance bandwidth has now been overcome using a number of techniques such as
use of better matching technique, electromagnetic or proximity feed in place of direct
feed, and the use of parasitic elements. Impedance bandwidth of 1020 per cent has
been achieved using these techniques. Patch antennas thus make excellent fuze
antennas. Using multiple patches, and using appropriate feed techniques, narrow
beams can be achieved that would be required for high directivity millimetre fuze
systems.
33
h GROUND PLANE
Figure 2.12(a). Square microstrip patch antenna.
Figure 2.12(b). Patch excited by a coaxial probe.

2.10 FUZE NOSE CONES
The housing of the fuze antenna or the radome is also a very important component
of the fuze. The fuze nose cones must have outstanding electrical, mechanical, and
thermal characteristics. The material of nose cone must have a very low dielectric loss
at the operating microwave frequencies and should have low dielectric constant to
reduce internal reflections. Mechanical requirements are most stringent in fuzes fired
from guns. Mechanically, the strength of nose cone has to be very high to withstand the
shock of the gun which may be as high as 50,000 g in a small-calibre anti-aircraft fuze.
In most artillery shells, requirements to withstand 30,000 g shock should be met.
Thermal characteristics of the nose cone are vital in high-speed shells and
missiles. A fuze nose cone travelling at Mach-2 would have stagnation temperature of
about 500 °C and a high stagnation pressure of about 5 atmospheres. The nose cone
material must have high temperature capability at high pressure. Any deformation due
to high temperature and pressure in the nose cone would lead to flight instability and
induce in-flight vibrations of the fuze, resulting in microphonic noise induced in the
fuze oscillator. It is interesting that many fuzes developed in the World War II failed
because of the melting of the joint at the tip of the nose cone due to the high stagnation
temperatures and pressures. Many microwave dielectric materials can meet the high
stagnation temperature but only at ambient pressure. The twin requirement of ability to
withstand high temperature at high pressure reduces the choice of materials
considerably. The materials with suitable characteristics that have been used for fuse
nose cone are high density polyethylene, high density polypropylene, and teflon.
34
The properties of these material are considerably enhanced using glass fibre
fillers. Glass filled polypropylene, and glass-filled Teflon have proved to be excellent
materials for fuze nose cones. The suitability of the chosen nose cone material can be
ascertained in the supersonic wind tunnel at the relevant Mach number and flight
duration encountered in a particular fuze application.
2.11 OSCILLATORS
Oscillators are one of the most critical and complex subsystems of the proximity
fuze. It is a critical system since the oscillator noise governs the sensitivity of the fuze.
The oscillator amplitude and phase noise determines the S/N ratio and thus the fuze
sensitivity.
Fuzes, in general, are constrained to use a common antenna for transmitter and
receiver. It is well known that limit to sensitivity of the fuze receiver is generally not set
by thermal noise in the receiver mixer, but by the oscillator phase and amplitude noise
that leaks into the fuze mixer because of limited isolation by the circulator that is used
to separate the transmitted and received signals and reflections due to antenna
impedance mismatch. There are basically two fundamental modes in which the
oscillator are used in the fuze. These are (i) self oscillating mixer, and (ii) separate
oscillator and mixer.
In the self-oscillating mixer (SOM), the oscillator is designed not only to function
as an oscillator but also to function as a mixer. This is possible since the oscillator is
basically a non-linear circuit element. Suitably designed oscillator can also function as
good mixer. In SOM, the oscillator is directly coupled to the antenna. The signal
received by the antenna mixes with the oscillator to produce homodyne beat signal. In
CW fuzes, SOM directly extracts the Doppler signal. In FMCW oscillator, the SOM
can extract the beat frequency shift between the transmitter and the receiver due to
delay in the received signal depending upon the range plus the Doppler shift. In fact,
SOM has been the traditional method used in the oscillators since the World War II
until the early 1980s. SOMs have the advantage of circuit simplicity but suffer from
lack of sensitivity owing to the high amplitude noise that is present in the self-
oscillating mixer designed to function an efficient mixer. The amplitude noise of the
oscillator mixer thus sets a fundamental limit to the senstivity of SOM. Low amplitude
noise of the oscillator mixer is thus a fundamental requirement of the SOM. Currently,
SOM is used in CW Doppler fuze to a limited extent where the sensitivity requirement
is very modest and the fuzes operates in a relatively ECM-free environment.
Oscillators with separate mixer use circulator to separate transmitted and received
signals and extract the beat frequency between the transmitted and received signals.
The oscillator in such a system can be designed to have a very low amplitude and
phase noise. The amplitude and phase noise of the oscillator thus sets a limit to the fuze
sensitivity. Low amplitude and phase noise is thus paramount to a fuze oscillator. The
oscillators for the fuzes can be categorised into: (i) voltage controlled oscillators for
FMCW systems, and (ii) fixed frequency oscillators for CW, phase modulated and
noise modulated systems.
The design of an oscillator is specific to the fuze depending upon the sensitivity
requirements and other factors. However, the broad requirements of oscillators are:
35
(a) Oscillator frequency range 1 GHz to 10 GHz with 2.4 GHz being the most
predominant frequency used in the fuzes.
(b) Oscillator power levels ranging from few milliwatt to tens of milliwatt depending
upon range and application. For high altitude fuzes used with dispensing ammunition,
the height of burst/release requirements can be as high as 500 ft to 3000 ft, the fuze
power requirement in these cases would be in order of few watt.
(c) Oscillators to have extremely low amplitude noise consistent with the mixer
efficiency in self-oscillating mixers.
(d) The oscillators for FMCW and fuzes using other modulation schemes should have
extremely low phase noise and low amplitude noise.
The oscillators for fuzes are designed using a number of available techniques, viz.,
classical feedback analysis, S-parameter techniques, negative resistance analysis, and
computer-aided design. For fuze applications, the negative resistance analysis under
small signal condition in conjunction with computer-aided design techniques for large
signal behaviour of the oscillator is a contemporary design technique. The basic
components of the oscillator are:
(a) The active element (the device),
(b) The configuration of the active negative resistance circuit, and
(c) The resonator (including the Varactor used in VCOs).
The configurations using a capacitive feedback in the emitter of bipolar transistor
or source of FET and an inductor feedback in the base of bipolar transistor or gate of
FET have proved to be the best configurations. The configuration, with a capacitive
feedback in emitter circuit has been successfully used at microwave and millimetre
wave frequencies. The preferred active devices for oscillators are silicon bipolar
transistors, silicon-germanium heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBT), and HEMTS.
High Q resonators generally use microstrip transmission lines. MMICs techniques
have recently been used in some of the fuzes. For oscillators operating up to 5 GHz
frequency, a silicon-bipolar transistor is the best choice. At higher frequencies, HBTs
and HEMT are competitive devices.
2.12 POWER SOURCES/RESERVE BATTERY OF PROXIMITY FUZES

The proximity fuzes need special source of power. The fuze power source must
satisfy the following conditions:
(a) The power source should be activated only at the time of firing/release/launch
depending upon the munition.
(b) The power source should be completely dormant prior to the activation and must
have a shelf life of 1020 years.
(c) The power source should function satisfactorily over a temperature range of 30 °C
to +70 °C.
There are basically two sources of power used in the fuzes: (i) chemical reserve
batteries, and (ii) power generated by a wind driven turbine-alternator.
The chemical reserve batteries are traditionally termed as reserve batteries. Their
main defining characteristics being that they do not produce power unless activated.
The chemical reserve batteries can be further classified into two groups: (i) liquid
electrolyte reserve batteries, and (ii) thermal batteries.
36
2.12.1 Liquid Electrolyte Reserve Batteries

These batteries are inactive/dormant by separating the reactive materials, i.e., the
electrolyte from the electrodes of the battery until the moment of activation when the
electrolyte comes in contact with the electrodes. In these batteries, electrolyte is stored
in a sealed glass ampule or a plastic ampule. The glass and the plastic ampoules are
designed to rupture due to the high shock encountered during gun firing, the electrolyte
is distributed into the battery electrodes, as the result of spin of the shell.
There are three important liquid electrolyte reserve battery systems that are used in
fuzes. These are: (i) zinc-chromic acid battery, (ii) lead-lead oxide hydrofluoboric
acid battery, and (iii) lithium/thionyl chloride batteries.
The zinc-chromic acid system was first developed for its use in fuzes during the
World War II. This was the workhorse battery which has an excellent track record and
was in use as late as 1980s. The zinc-chromic acid battery has a low temperature
capability of 32 °C. In fact, some current fuzes continue to use this system till date.
Chromic acid battery has now been largely replaced by lead-hydrofluoboric acid and
lithium/thionyl chloride batteries.
Lead-hydrofluoboric acid battery is an improved version of the standard lead acid
battery (which uses sulphuric acid). The lead-hydrofluoboric acid battery has an
advantage over standard lead acid battery, which has soluble lead sulphate as the
discharge product. The hydrofluoboric acid produces no soluble discharge product. In
addition, lead-hydrofluoboric acid batteries have much superior low temperature
capability. The battery functions very well at temperature as low as 40 °C.
Lithium/thionyl chloride batteries are the most contemporary batteries used in
fuzes. The lithium/thionyl chloride cell features the highest energy density of all the
Lithium types and has the highest open circuit voltage of 3.6 V. Like the other reserve
batteries thionyl chloride electrolyte is stored in a glass or plastic ampule. The lithium/
thionyl chloride batteries are excellent at low temperatures and have unmatched shelf
life of 20 years. The battery has a low temperature capability of 40°C.
The above spin-dependent batteries therefore are excellent reserve batteries for
application to fuzes for spinning shells artillery shells, anti-aircraft shells, and rifled
mortars. These batteries thus cater to a significant bulk of fuzes. Design of ampule, its
breaking mechanism and cushioning method is critical. The ampule must not break
during the normal handling of the munition such as drop from a moderate height but
must function at the lowest charge of the gun from which it is fired.
In principle, these electrolyte batteries are not limited in operation requiring g
impact force and spin for its functioning. The ampule could be ruptured using a small
pyrotechnic charge and could be forced into electrode system by the gas pressure
through suitable membranes. By and large, these variants have potential applications.
Traditionally, the spin-dependent reservebattery is the workhorse of all the spinning
shells. The spin-dependent reserve batteries are tested on the ground in suitable
facility, which imparts both the necessary g and spin to the reserve battery.
2.12.2 Thermal Batteries

These batteries consist of a solid salt electrolyte stored at ambient temperature and
electrically or percussively activated by firing an igniter, which in turn ignites heat paper,
37
which ignites the heat pellets. With the rise in temperature, usually 500 °C to 700 °C, the
heat pellets melt the salt and the molten salt becomes conductive and produces power for
a short period of time from few seconds to tens of minutes depending upon design
and application. Thermal batteries remain inert for extended periods exceeding 20 years.
Another attribute of the thermal batteries is that their functioning and characteristics are
not dependent on the ambient temperature. The battery functions equally well over the
entire range of the ambient temperatures encountered in the fuze application. The thermal
battery meets the fuze power requirements extremely well. Traditionally, these batteries
have been used for applications in missiles. However, with the advent of development of
extremely compact thermal batteries, these are making inroads into the applications
which was exclusive domain of spin-dependent reserve batteries. Modern thermal
batteries use lithium-iron disulphide with the eutectic mixture of lithium chloride and
potassium chloride for the electrolyte. One aspect of the design of thermal batteries is that
it must cater for a means of initiation from the parent vehicle with which it is used. For
instance, a thermal battery used with a bomb must get a firing command from the aircraft
with a suitable delay built into the system.
2.12.3 Air-Driven Turbine Alternator Power Source

Wind/air-driven turbine batteries have been the main source of power for munitions
which do not have spin and or impact at the time of release. The munitions, which these
batteries cater to, are principally the mortars, bombs, and rockets. These batteries
principally consists of two components:
(a) Air-driven turbine which uses the RAM air pressure generated on the nose of the
projectile to drive a miniature, impeller on the turbine shaft.
(b) The air-driven turbine impeller has magnetic rotor attached to turbine shaft and is
surrounded by the alternator winding. The turbine-generator combination produces
an alternating voltage which is rectified and stabilised by a suitable circuitry. In a
typical mortar system, the turbine would rotate typically at 30000 rpm. The alternator
produces an output at frequency of 3 KHz to 4 KHz. The turbine alternator power
sources have excellent characteristics these perform extremely well over the entire
range of temperatures encountered by the fuze and the power source has an almost
unlimited shelf life. By its dormant nature, the power source gives total safety to
the fuzing system in handling, in the bore of the mortar, and in the proximity of the
releasing weapon as the power source will be activated only when the turbine
achieves a minimum rotational speed. The air-driven turbines are tested in a suitable
wind tunnel facility.
2.13 SAFETY AND ARMING

Safety and arming mechanism (SAM), is vital and a typical link between the
warhead and fuze in the missile/ammunition fuze systems. The purpose of SAM is to
ensure that the fuze is safe at all times until it has left the weapon and clears the weapon to
a safe range. The SAM must satisfy the following functional requirements of the system:
(a) The ammunition should be safe throughout the service life of the ammunition.
(b) It should be safe during handling, loading, and transportation.
(c) It should be safe during firing/launch/release of the weapon and up to a desired
point in the trajectory.
(d) The fuze should not get activated with the electromagnetic interference.
38
The above safety measures should ensure munition handling, bore, and
environmental safety of the system. The missile/ammunition should arm after the safe
distance with high reliability. The design of the SAM should be fail-safe, i.e., it must be
safe under all conditions even if the arming fails for some reason.
MIL-STD 1316 dictates the use of two independent operations and/or mechanisms
to ensure that the detonator cannot accidentally initiate the explosive train. There are
basically two techniques used in the SAM: (i) mechanical SAM with an electrical
detonator, and (ii) an all electronic SAM.
2.13.1 Mechanical SAM

There are numerous ways to implement mechanical SAM. One example of a
mechanically safe fuze is one where the detonator or priming device (which may be
electronic) is mounted in an assembly in which it is rotated 90° (mechanical offset) out
of line with the explosive train. If the detonator fires in that configuration, the pressure
wave generated cannot initiate the explosive train, and the fuze is thus safe. In many
designs, acceleration of the projectile will cause the mechanism to travel through a 90°
rotation and thus align the detonator with the explosive train.
The second independent process is the application of power to the detonator (electro-
explosive device). The detonators of interest in proximity fuzing are micro-detonators,
which require only a few milliJoules of energy to detonate. The second safety is obtained
by the inherent safety in the reserve battery/power source and associated
electromechanical switches in conjunction with the arming delay. As an example, in an
artillery fuze, which would use a spin-dependent battery and high g shock to break its
ampule, the battery cannot be activated until a preset shock of high value (typically
1000 g) is imparted to the reserve battery and the reserve battery is spun at a high rpm.
This is the inherent safety provided by the battery. Further, the detonator is shorted by a
spin switch, which opens only on the spin. Additionally, a spin switch in series with the
arming circuit ensures that the arming circuit is disabled until spin reaches a
predetermined value. Subsequent to the function of the switches, the system will have an
arming delay controlled by RC time constant provided by the charging resistor and the
capacitor. In another example of rocket fuze, which uses a wind-driven turbine alternator,
the power source is available only after the launch of the rocket, when the rocket has
achieved a minimum velocity. This time is of the order of 100 ms. Additional safety is
provided by a gear train mechanism interfaced with the rotor of the turbine which ensures
that the detonator comes in line with the explosive only after a preset number of rotations
of turbine have taken place. Further safety is provided by a g switch, it is ensured that the
g during the launch of the rocket exists for a preset time before the system is armed.
Similar technique would also be used in the mortar fuze with the difference that a high
g switch would be used as one of the safety elements in the SAM.
2.13.2 Electronic Safety and Arming Device

The discussion above describes traditional SAM. In recent past, there has been
development in all electronic safety and arming mechanisms. The all electronic safety
and arming device (ESAD) has the following advantages:
(a) No moving parts shutterless
(b) No primary explosive
39
(c) High resistance against spurious electromagnetic interference

(d) No mechanical devices except impact or g sensors
(e) Long shelf life
(f) Increased testability
(g) Adaptable to operating in harsh environment.
All electronic SAM or an ESAD uses an explosive bridge wire (EBW) and a high
voltage and a high pulsed energy circuitry. In such systems, use of primary sensitive
explosives in the initiation train is not necessary. This obviates the use of shutter or
interrupter mechanism. High voltage (2 kV to 3 kV) and high energy is required to fire
the EBW detonator. The Fig. 2.13 shows the use of ESAD.
Figure 2.13. Electronic safety and arming device.

2.14 SHOCK AND ACCELERATION
Though the modern fuzes use solid-state devices and integrated circuits, shock and
the acceleration to the fuze circuit, at the time of firing, is a serious problem and has to
be addressed depending upon the nature of the gun and its calibre. As an example, the
shell for a 75/24 Pack Howitzer suffers a shock of about 25,000 g, when fired at the
highest charge. A 120 mm tank round can experience approximately 60,000 g of
setback, and a 40 mm projectile has to endure over 100,000 g. The fuze must survive
these high g shocks. The power spectral density of the gun shock is such that its
energy content will usually be concentrated at high audio frequencies.
Coupled with the high g conditions, is the problem of high spins of the field
artillery and anti-aircraft shells. These could be of the order of 20000 rpm or more. The
high rpm of the shell-induced vibrations of the fuze produces microphonic noise. The
fuze received signals are of relatively very low levels. The fuze design must cater for
microphonic noise generated by the spinning shell. Problem is further compounded by
the fact that a gun in a higher cycle of its life (worn out) produces a side-slapping of the
shell in the barrel of the gun. The slide-slapping acceleration can be of the order of few
40
hundred g to few thousand g depending upon the wear of the gun. Side-slapping g
levels of the range of 1000 g to 2000 gs are not unusual. The induced vibrations of
the fuze due to side-slapping further adds to the microphonic noise in the fuze.
In view of the problems stated above, the fuze electronics has to be encapsulated
so that the solid-state devices and other components of the fuze can withstand the
shock of the gun and to prevent the vibration of the shell being transmitted to the fuze
electronics. The encapsulants for the low-frequency circuits usually are the polyester
resins, polyurethanes, and epoxies. The encapsulants must be strong enough (but not
brittle) to withstand the shock of the gun and must operate over extended temperature
range of 40 °C to +70 °C. The choice of the encapsulants is not trivial as most
encapsulants tend to become brittle at low temperatures.
The encapsulation of RF circuits of the fuze, i.e., fuze oscillator and the antenna
are even more complex. The encapsulants in addition to satisfying the conditions stated
above must have extremely low dielectric constant and very low dielectric loss at
microwave frequencies. It is pertinent to point out that the fuzes developed during
World War II, the encapsulants for the entire fuze was microcrystalline Cerese-wax.
This of course is a history now and much better encapsulants are available for the fuze
applications.
Suitable encapsulant for the RF components are silicones, polyurethanes of
appropriate hardness, and low-density polyethylene. The RF fuze circuitry moulded in
low-density polyethylene has been an excellent encapsulant for the RF circuits by
virtue of the low dielectric constant and low dielectric loss. RF circuits have to be
injection moulded in low-density polythene at about 150 °C. By proper design and
packaging of the fuze oscillator, even at high temperatures of 150 °C plus, RF circuits
can withstand the high temperature for short intervals of encapsulation.
The solid-state devices and integrated circuits used in the fuzes must also be
encapsulated individually. The high g fuze packaging is an important subject by
itself. The ability of fuzes to withstand high g shocks needs to be ascertained, both at
the development stage and during the sampling stage of the mass produced fuzes. The
three principle methods of testing the high g capability are:
(a) Drop test from an appropriate height typically 40 ft or more depending upon the
required g condition.
(b) Firing of the fuzes from the cold gas gun facility.
(c) Firing of the fuzes from the gun.
In the drop test method, fuzes are dropped from a height of 40 ft or more. The fuze
fitted with the shell, guiding it into a steel tube is dropped from a height of 40 ft or more
with the nose-up condition. The fuze falls on to a steel/lead block depending upon the
technique and the high g deceleration encountered at the moment of impact is
measured by standard steel ball indention method on the lead block. The high g
impact condition could also be measured by suitable high g impact switches
incorporated into the test vehicle to ascertain whether the preset high g impact switch
have been activated during the impact. The drop test method is an excellent method of
testing the capability of the fuze to meet the high g conditions and in fact is the first
test in any fuze packaging development. The limitation of this method however is that
the impact is imparted for an extremely short duration. Within the gun, the high g
impact would last for a few milliseconds to 20 ms in some cases depending upon the
41
length of the barrel. The testing of fuzes for both high g and appropriate duration
therefore requires additional methods for complete testing of the fuze ruggedness.
The second and the third method precisely satisfy the above condition. In second
method, the high-pressure cold gas in the cold gas chamber is separated from the fuze
chamber at ambient pressure through a steel membrane of appropriate design. The steel
membrane is ruptured either by high pressure or by external means at the appropriate
pressure of the cold gas. The fuze mounted on a much lighter test vehicle is subjected
to very high g at the moment of rupturing of the membrane. The g lasts for a much
longer period than the drop test, depending upon the design of the cold gas gun facility.
The cold gas gun facility capable of producing g values of hundred thousand or more
have been existing for a long time and have proved as an excellent technique for fuze
testing. The fuzes in this facility are fired over soft targets such as sand bags to
minimise the damage at the time of impact on the target. The internal damage to the
fuze, if any under the condition of high g can be ascertained by the recovery of the
fuze. In-flight fuze functioning can be obtained by telemetry during the short duration
of the flight of fuze between the cold gas gun facility and the soft-target.
The third method is the actual firing method. The fuzes are fired from the gun
which satisfies the g requirement of the test, vertically from the test range. The fuze
lands base down without damage to the nose cone. The g function of the fuze then can
be ascertained fully after the recovery of the fuze. The effects of the microphonics
however would need to be telemetered as in the case of cold gas gun facility.
2.15 FUZE CLASSIFICATION

The fuzes can be classified in to the following broad categories:
(a) Classification according to the ammunition with which they are used,
(b) Classification according to the targets,
(c) Classification according to the fuzing techniques,
(d) Classification according to the antenna configuration.
2.15.1 Classification According to Ammunition
Different ammunition have their own special characteristics. This requires that the
fuze is designed to meet the specific requirements of the ammunition with which it is used.
Figure 2.14 shows the classification according to ammunition.
2.15.1.1 Field Artillery Shells
These are characterised by high g shocks at the time of firing, high rpm and side-
slapping within the bore of the gun. As an example, a 155 mm field artillery shell is
subjected to 15000 g at the time of firing. The problem becomes severe in shells of
smaller calibre. A 75/24 shell is subjected to g of 25000 g at the highest charge. The
rpm of these shells is also very high, of the order of tens of thousands, depending upon
the shell. The problem is compounded by the side-slapping the shell is subjected to
in the bore of the gun. The combined effect of high spin and side-slapping results in
severe microphonic noise transmitted to the oscillator. The field artillery fuzes are
therefore designed to withstand extremely high firing gs and must build in
microphonic isolation and use appropriate techniques to minimise the effect of
microphonics. In addition, the high speed of the shells require fuze nose cones to
withstand high stagnation temperature and high stagnation pressure. The ground
42
AMMUNITION
SPINNING NON- MISSILE/

AMMUNITION SPINNING SPECIAL
AMMUNITION AMMUNITION
• ANTI-TANK SHELLS • MORTARS • MISSILES

• FIELD ARTILLERY • BOMBS • LASER GUIDED
SHELLS • ROCKETS ARTILLERY
• HOWITZERS • SUBMUNITION
• RIFLED MORTARS
• ANTI-AIRCRAFT SHELLS
Figure 2.14. Fuze classification according to ammunition with which they are used.
targets have fairly large radar cross-sections. The field artillery fuzes therefore have
moderate sensitivities.
2.15.1.2 Anti-aircraft Shells

The anti-aircraft shells have all the characteristics of the field artillery shells given
above. In fact, the g problem of small-calibre anti-aircraft shells is more severe than
that of Field artillery shells. A 40 mm anti-aircraft round is subjected to about 100,000
g. Anti-aircraft shells have two additional characteristics, i.e., their target being
airborne, have relatively smaller radar cross-section than that of the ground surface.
The anti-aircraft fuzes therefore require much higher fuze sensitivity and must solve
the microphonic problem under these conditions. The anti-aircraft fuzes have to
function, in the naval role against airborne targets at low altitudes. The sea clutter
problem, at high sea states is particularly severe. The fuze receiver must cater to its
function under severe clutter environment.
2.15.1.3 Mortars
Mortars require a burst height between 2 m to 4 m, the low heights applying to
lower calibre mortars. The height of burst therefore has to be precise. The mortar fuzes
need to employ much wider transmitter bandwidth to achieve the high accuracy at the
low height of burst.
2.15.1.4 Rockets
Though rockets have no g problem, these are particularly susceptible to
vibrations. The microphonic problem is therefore more severe.
2.15.1.5 Missiles
The fuzes for missiles are most sophisticated and complex amongst all the fuze
applications. The missiles fuzes must have very high reliability approaching 100 per
cent. They must function in the presence of severe airborne ECM environment, as the
airborne target will use the most sophisticated fuze ECM techniques at its command.
The missile fuzes have to use complex algorithms in their signal processor to optimise
the burst position. These also have to employ complex antenna beam patterns to
43
achieve the optimum burst point. Missile systems may have to use multiple fuze
sensors to have an all-round coverage.
2.15.1.6 Submunitions
Submunitions are characterised by clusters in which these are released.
Interference between the fuzes within the cluster demands complex modulation
waveform and special techniques.
2.15.2 Classification According to Targets
The Fig. 2.15 shows the classification of targets with which the fuzes are used.
TARGET
GROUND TARGET AGAINST SEA-SURFACE TARGETS AIRBORNE TARGETS FOR
• TROOPS • SHIPS • HIGH ALTITUDE

• TANKS • CLOSE TO GROUND
• BUILDINGS • CLOSE TO THE SEA
Figure 2.15. Classification of targets with which the fuzes are used.
2.15.2.1 Ground Targets
These have fairly high radar cross-section. The fuzes are designed with moderate
fuze sensitivity. Fuzes against tanks must discriminate between ground surface and tank.
Top-attack ammunition against tank may use millimetre wave or laser proximity fuzes.
2.15.2.2 Anti-aircraft Targets
These have relatively low radar cross-section and multiple scattering centres. The
airborne targets employ sophisticated ECM. Fuzes have to function in the presence of
strong sea clutter from the sea surface against low-level naval targets. Fuzes have to be
designed to cater for all these aspects.
2.15.2.3 Ship Target
These are one of the most difficult targets to deal with. Fuzes have to function under
strong sea clutter conditions, problem compounded because of very low speed of ships
making the Doppler discrimination rather difficult.
2.15.3 Classification by Techniques

Fuzes are classified by the techniques and by the types of waveforms they transmit
and in case of pulse system the pulse rate at which they transmit them (Fig. 2.16). There
are four principle waveforms employed in the radar fuze system:
2.15.3.1 Pulsed Doppler
These fuzes have limited application which require functioning at high altitude
between 1000 ft to 5000 ft, required in dispensing submunition. At these altitudes, the
FMCW systems have a severe problem of transmitter leakage into the receiver.
2.15.3.2 CW Fuze
CW fuzes transmit and receive unmodulated CW signals. The transmitter and
receiver operates simultaneously using the common antenna. CW fuzes primarily
44
FUZING TECHNIQUES
RADAR- BASED LASER-BASED
• PULSED DOPPLER (for high • PULSED

altitude fuzes) • TELEMETRY MODE
• CW
• FMCW
• PSEUDO-RANDOM
BINARY-CODED
• NOISE RADAR
Figure 2.16. Classification according to fuzing techniques.
measure the target echo Doppler shift. Range cannot be measured directly but is measured
indirectly from the strength of received signal. Proximity fuzes of the World War II and
till early 1980s, used CW fuzes. CW fuzes are highly susceptible to countermeasures and
can be easily jammed.
2.15.3.3 FMCW Fuze
FMCW fuzes using sinusoidal and linear triangular modulation, have the capability
of measuring target range. Fuzes of most ammunition use the linear FMCW technique
owing to their excellent features. Wide band FM modulations achieve very high target
range accuracies. The FMCW systems are also resistant to ECM. Their deterministic
waveforms also allow the signal processing using FFT techniques.
2.15.3.4 Pseudo-random Bindery-Coded and Noise-Modulated Fuze
Pseudo-random bindery coded and noise modulated fuzes, are another class of fuzes
which use time-variant modulations on the CW and are capable of measuring the target
range. These waveforms are more complex than the FMCW waveforms and need
correlators in the signal processors to extract range information. The correlators are
complex compared to FFT or other simpler signal processing techniques used in the
FMCW fuzes.
2.15.3.5 Pulsed Laser Fuzes
These belong to the most recent class of fuzes. Laser fuzes have unique advantage
of very high precision in ranging and their very high resistance to countermeasures. Laser
countermeasures have to be far more sophisticated than electronic countermeasures to
be effective against the laser fuzes. One of the important application of laser fuzes is in
missiles against airborne targets.
2.15.4 Classification According to Radar Fuze-Antenna Configuration

Radar fuzes are classified by the physical relationship between transmit and receive
antennas. Figure 2.17 shows the classification according to radar fuze-antenna
configuration.
2.15.4.1 Common Receive-transmit Antenna
Common receive-transmit antenna fuzes (Fig. 2.18) with conventional ammunition
are constrained to use a common transmit/receive antenna, owing to the space limitations.
45
RADAR FUZE ANTENNA CONFIGURATIONS
COMMON ANTENNA SEPARATE ANTENNA

FOR Tx & Rx FOR Tx & Rx
Tx & Rx DUPLEXED BY
SELF-OSCILLATING
CIRCULATOR
MIXER
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
(Bulk of Fuzes)
(Limited)
LOW SENSITIVITY
FUZES ENTIRE RANGE MISSILES MISSILES
OF AMMUNITION
Figure 2.17. Classification of fuzes according to antenna configurations.
These antennas have to solve the problem of leakage between the transmitter and receiver
through the circulator, mismatch of the antenna, and reflections from the radome.
Figure 2.18. Common receive-transmit antenna fuzes.
2.15.4.2 Separate Transmit and Receive Antenna Fuzes

Separate transmit and receive antenna fuzes (Fig. 2.19) using separate transmit and
received antenna, positioned to achieve physical isolation, are capable of achieving much
higher sensitivities than the fuzes using common transmitter and receiver antenna. These
systems are used in missile fuzes where high sensitivities are required and the space
constraints are not that much severe.
46
Figure 2.19. Separate transmit and receive antenna fuzes.
2.16 EVOLUTION OF FUZE TECHNOLOGY

In the last three decades, the fuze technology has advanced and evolved
considerably. The advancements in fuzes have taken place in the following areas:
Accurate height of burst in ground fuzes.
Optimum point of burst against airborne targets to provide optimum lethality.
Resistant to severe electronic countermeasures. One of the major problems the fuzes
have encountered in the recent times is the development of advanced fuze ECM
techniques. Much of the development work in the fuzes has therefore been directed
towards making the fuze function satisfactorily under these conditions.
Ultrawide band fuzes: Ultra wide band fuzes using a bandwidth manifold higher than
the conventional fuzes have been recently developed, which make the fuze extremely
difficult to jam.
Advanced signal processing techniques: Advanced signal processing techniques
based upon the correlators used in the pseudo-random binary-coded phase-
modulated systems and fuzes using noise modulation have required signal processing
which cannot be easily implemented using existing signal processing circuits.
Application specific integrated circuits have been designed and built for fuzes.
Application of MMIC techniques in the front-end/RF system in the fuzes: Integration
of oscillators, switches, amplifiers, and mixers in MMIC form makes the MMICs a
very attractive alternative for mass production of proximity fuzes. Apart from the
compactness, MMIC yields much higher reliability.
Broadly the evolution of fuzes can be categorised as the first, second, and third
generation fuzes.
2.16.1 First-generation Fuzes

These are characterised by the following:
CW/pulsed Doppler
Fixed frequency
Fuzes become active 2 s to 3 s after firing/launch/release.
47
2.16.2 Second-generation Fuzes

FMCW/pulsed Doppler
Repetitive signals
Time gating fuze inactive until 2 s to 4 s before the expected time to hit the ground/
target
Power levels mW to tens of mW in FMCW fuzes.
2.16.3 Third-generation Fuzes
FMCW with advanced digital signal processing techniques
Non-repetitive signals, using frequency agility, PRF agility
True random binary phase coding
Fuzes using noise modulation waveforms
Time gating
Power levels mW to tens of mW
Surface-mount devices
MMIC techniques.
2.16.4 Current Fuzes
Third-generation fuzes
Have been further advanced by use of pulsed high power laser diodes and high
energy short-pulsed lasers based on laser diode pumped solid state microlasers.
2.17 MILITARY STANDARDS

The proximity fuzes function under the most difficult environmental conditions
experienced by any electronic system. The high g conditions, which proximity fuzes are
subjected to is a unique environment. The proximity fuzes also have to function with very
high degree of reliability. It is therefore imperative that suitable standards, with regard
to safety and functioning, have to be laid down which the fuzes must meet after the
production. The military standards pertain to fuze assembly, safety and arming features
of the fuze, functional performance and range of environmental tests to which the fuzes
are subjected. The military standards applied to the current fuzes are:
MIL-STD-333B Environmental and performance tests for fuze and fuze
components
MIL-STD-331B Fuzes, projectile, and accessories contours
MIL-STD-1316D (recently upgraded to 1316E) Fuze design, safety criteria
STANAG-4187 Fuzing system safety design requirements.
REFERENCES
1. Balanis, C.A. Antenna theory analysis and design. Ed. 2. John Wiley, 1982.
2. Byron, Edde. Radar Principles, technology, applications. Pearson Education,
2004.
3. Skolnik, M.L. Introduction to radar system. McGraw-Hill, 1980. Chp 4.
4. Skolnik, M.L. Radar handbook (Ed). McGraw-Hill, 1970. Chap 16.
48

Proximity Fuzes Theory and Techniques

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PROXIMITY FUZES

THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

Introduction to Camouflage and Deception: JV Ramana Rao

DEFENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

1. Proximity fuze 2. Oscillators 3. Photodetectors 4. Antennas

CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF PROXIMITY FUZES

CHAPTER 2: PROXIMITY FUZES: AN OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 4: RESERVE BATTERY

CHAPTER 8: FMCW PROXIMITY FUZES

CHAPTER 9: LASER SOURCES AND PHOTODETECTORS

CHAPTER 10: NANOSECOND PULSE GENERATOR

CHAPTER 11: LASER PROXIMITY FUZES

21 April 2010 VK Arora

History of Proximity Fuzes

1.1 SIGNIFICANCE AND BACKGROUND OF THE RADIO PROXIMITY FUZE

1.2 DEVELOPMENT WORK IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL

1.3 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT WORK AT APPLIED PHYSICS

1.4 DEVELOPMENT WORK AT NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 2,3

1.6 PRODUCTION SCALE-UP

1.7 A STRIKING COMBAT SUCCESS 3

1.8 ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES 3

1.9 DEVELOPMENT OF PROXIMITY FUZES

1.10 POST-WAR DEVELOPMENTS

1.11BRIEF HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF PROXIMITY FUZES IN INDIA

Proximity Fuzes: An Overview

2.2 BASICS OF PROXIMITY FUZES

PROXIMITY SIGNAL GATED FIRING DETONATOR SAFETY AND

To Fuze Circuits To Fuze Circuits

Figure 2.1. Block diagram of a typical proximity fuze.

(a) Proximity sensor,

2.2.1 Proximity Sensor

2.2.2 Signal Processor

2.2.3 Detonator Firing Circuit

2.2.4 Reserve Power Supply

2.3 RADAR PROXIMITY FUZES

2.3.1 Continuous Wave Proximity Fuze

Figure 2.2. (a) CW Doppler proximity fuze, ( b) self oscillator mixer.

RCS of extended ground target is dependent on the reflection coefficient of the

2.3.1.2 Limitations of CW Fuzes

2.3.2 FMCW Fuzes1

Figure 2.3. FMCW waveforms.

Figure 2.4. FMCW waveforms in case of moving target.

If the average beat frequency is determined by counting the number of cycles in

Figure 2.5. A typical FMCW fuze.

f> = 320 KHz

Quantization error = δR = c/4 ΔB

2.3.3 Phase Coded Modulation Systems

modulation is an excellent modulation as it results in little distortion of the code. The

Figure 2.6. Pseudo-random phase coded binary proximity fuze.

2.3.4 Noise Modulation Systems

2.4 LASER PROXIMITY FUZES

Electronic Counter Countermeasure (ECCM) Capability: A short pulse radar can

2.5 PULSED TIME OF FLIGHT METHOD

Figure 2.7. Laser proximity fuze.

2.6 BEAM MODULATION TELEMETRY

2.7 ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES2

2.7.1 Passive ECM

2.7.2 Active ECM

2.7.3 Jammer Objectives

2.8 ELECTRONIC COUNTER COUNTERMEASURES2

2.8.1 Antenna-Related ECCM

2.8.2 Transmitter-Related ECCM

2.9.1 Antenna Requirements

2.12.3 Air-Driven Turbine Alternator Power Source