EMG 3212 METROLOGY

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Metrology is defined as the science of measurement. It is the language of science. If you cnnot measure,
you cannot describe it, you cannot analyze it. Measurement are required in manufacturing., e.g. to turn
a shaft, measurement are required so as to meet the designers specification. The measurement for the
shaft can be dimensional eg radius, surface finish, roundness etc.

1.1 System of International standards

This system has seven (7) base unit:

Quantity Unit

1. Length metre (m)

2. Mass kilogram (kg)

3. Time second (s)

4. Electric current Ampere (A)

5. Temperature Kelvin (K)

6. Luminous intensity Candria (Cd)

7. Amount of substance mole (mol)

From these base units, other units can be derived, e.g. Newton, N = kg.m/s 2 . One of the most commonly
used unit is the metre, which is defined as the distance travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299792458 of a second.

1.2 Line and end standard

Line standards are measuring instruments which measure through some graduated scalee.g. steel rule,
measuring tapes etc.

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End standards on the other hand are measuring instruments, made to very high accuracy and the
measuring faces are the working faces. Eg gauge blocks (fig 1.2)

The end standards are mainly used in both linear and angular measurements. The surface finish must
have very low levels of roughness so as to minimize errors when measuring, and allow wringing.

1.3 Mathematical concepts in metrology

1.3.1 Definition of terms

a) Precision – This is the refinement of the measuring instrument/measurand e.g. 1.0001 mm is
more precise than 1.001 mm.

b) Accuracy – This is the degree of conformity i.e the nearness to the ‘true’ value.

c) Errors – These can be described as distortions from the ‘actual’ measurement. They generally
are generally of two types:

i) Systemic errors – these are errors arising from the measuring system, such as a wrongly
graduated scale.

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 ii) Random errors – such as misreading a scale.

It is generally assumed that that not everything is known about the standard. If a measurement
is repeated severally, the observation will not be the same. This discrepancy is generally due to
random errors.

d) Repeatability – This is a measure of the reproducibility of reading of the reading of the

instrument by the same operator.

1.4 Standards
A standard nab either be a line standard or an end standard. These standards vary in accuracy
from the shop floor standard, all the way to the international standard. The shop floor standard
should be traceable to the organization’s standard, which in turn should be traceable to the
national standard and subsequently traceable to the international standard. Traceability is
defined as the property of a measurement to be related to the national/international standard
through an unbroken chain of comparisons (calibrations).

Through standardization/calibration/traceability, manufacturers can make components from

different locations and the parts will function as required. This allows modern manufacturing
where different parts are made in different places and assembly done in one location and the
assembled product functions as expected. ( For example a standard M10 by 1.25 mm bolt, if
made using calibrated equipment will always function regardless where it was made from.)

International Standard

National standard

Company Standard
(company’s gauge block)

Shop floor vernier caliper

Fig 1.3: Traceability of a measurement

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1.4.1 Branches of metrology
Metrology can either be trade/legal metrology or scientific metrology. Trade metrology aims at
promoting fair trade to ensure that both the seller and buyer of say sugar get a fair deal. In
Kenya, trade metrology is regulated by the department of weights and measures. Scientific
metrology deals with science/engineering to ensure accuracy of the measuring instruments.
Scientific metrology in Kenya is under the mandate of the Kenya Bureau of Standards.

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2.0 LINEAR MEASUREMENT
2.1 Vernier instruments
Vernier instruments have two scales: a fixed scale and a sliding scale. This arrangement
improves the precision of the instrument. The most common examples are the vernier calipers
and the vernier height gage. The principle of operation is such that the smallest graduation on
the main scale is divided into equal number of parts on the sliding scale. The principle of reading
a vernier scale is illustrated in fig 2.1 below.

The steps are detailed below for the reading in fig 2.1b.

(Note that the smallest division on the main scale is 1 mm. This is divided into ten (10) equal divisions
on the sliding scale, giving 1/10 mm as the precision.)

1st step. the largest division on the main scale = 30 mm

2nd step the main scale reading that is coincident or just after zero on the sliding scale is 3 mm

3rd step the first vernier reading that is coincident to a main scale reading is 4,

hence 4 *1/10 mm =0.4 mm

4th step addition 30 mm + 3 mm + 0.4 mm = 33.34 mm

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This vernier principle is applicable to all vernier instruments, including vernier instruments for angular
measurement such as vernier protractors. The main parts of a vernier caliper are illustrated in fig 2.2.

2.1.1 Measurement with a vernier caliper

a) Alignment

When measuring, the caliper must be properly aligned, i.e. the line of measurement must be
parallel to the beam and in the plane of the caliper. Errors arising from misalignment are
illustrated in fig 2.3 to 2.5.

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Other variations of the vernier caliper include dial calipers and electronic/digital calipers.

2.2 Micrometer instruments

Micrometer instruments employ precise screw threads for measurement. They generally have
two scales also one on the barrel and the second on the thimble as shown in fig 2.6.

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Reading a micrometer is easier than the vernier previously discussed. The smallest division on the barrel
scale is divided into an equal number of parts on the thimble scale. This gives the precision of the
micrometer. For example, if the smallest barrel division is 0.5 mm, and the number of divisions on
thimble are 50, then the reading of the micrometer is 0.01 mm (5 mm/50). The reading is in three steps
as illustrated in fig 2.7.

I Obtain the reading on the barrel scale, (2.5 mm)

II Obtain the reading on the barrel scale (38 * .01 mm = 0.38 mm)

III Add the two (2.5 + 0.38 = 2.88 mm)

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 Variations of the micrometer screw gage include digital/electronic micrometers, gear
micrometers, internal micrometers, depth micrometers, etc.

In comparison to the vernier caliper, the micrometer screw gage has the following advantages
and limitations.

Advantages
a) More accurate

b) Higher precision

c) Easier to read

d) Obeys Abbey’s principle

e) The ratchet controls the measuring pressure

Limitations
a) Short measuring range

b) Best suited for external measurement

c) More expensive

Measuring with the external micrometer

When taking an external measurement, a procedure similar to the one previously discussed for the
caliper is used as illustrated in fig 2.8

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2.3 Dial Gauges
These instruments are mainly used in comparison measurements. The dial gauge has the main
components shown in fig 2.9

The spindle moves up and down. This motion represents the deviation from a datum. The
motion is amplified through a set of levers and finally observed as an indication by the indicating
hand. The use of a dial gauge is illustrated in fig 2.10.

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The dial indicator is set at zero at the required/known length. Subsequent measurements will be
registered as a variation, either positive or negative from this length. Dial indicators can also be

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used to check if a shaft is running true between centers as shown in fig 2.11

Gauging is generally a measurement method where the desired outcome is to compare between
a known length and an unknown length. It is done to establish if the unknown length lies within
some specified tolerances.

Three types of dials are commonly used as illustrated in fig2.12

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Variations of the dial indicator include the dial bore gauge used for gauging internal diameters of
cylinders, dial micrometers and dial vernier calipers.

2.4 Other gauges used in the workshop

The most common gauge is the GO NOGO gauge.

a) Ring gauges
Consider a 10 mm ± 0.02 mm diameter shaft. The minimum acceptable diameter is 9.98 mm
while the maximum is 10.02 mm as illustrated in fig 2.13

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b) Plug gauges
Consider a hole to be drilled with the same tolerance of 10 mm ± 0.02 mm diameter. The
maximum permissible diameter (minimum metal condition) is 10.02 mm while the minimum
diameter is 9.98 mm (maximum metal condition). This hole can be gauged using a plug GO-
NOGO gauge as illustrated in fig 2.14

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 It should be noted that there are standards on how to tolerance the gauges to ensure that correct size
shaft/gauge is not rejected.

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