LESSON 3: Inclusion and Identity by inscribing their names on potshards called Tend-and-Befriend Response A physiological,

FROM ISOLATION TO INCLUSION ostraca. psychological, and interpersonal response to

A. The Need to Belong OSTRACISM Excluding one or more individuals stressful events characterized by increased
“a pervasive drive to form and maintain at from a group by reducing or eliminating nurturing, protective and supportive behaviors
least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, contact with the person, usually by ignoring, (tending), and initiating and strengthening
and impactful interpersonal relationships.” shunning, or explicitly banishing them. relationships with other people (befriending)
They likened the need to belong to other Williams’s (2007, 2009) temporal need- cyberostracism Excluding one or more
basic needs, such as hunger or thirst. threat model of ostracism, summarized in individuals from a technologically mediated
A person who has not eaten will feel Figure 3.2, calls this initial response to group interaction, such as a computer-based
hungry, but a person who has little contact ostracism the reflexive stage. It is discussion group, by reducing or eliminating
with other people will feel unhappy and lonely. characterized by a flood of negative feelings— communication with the person.
Emotional loneliness It occurs when the pain, disappointment, and distress—that all 3-1c Inclusion and Human Nature
problem is a lack of a long-term, meaningful, serve to signal that something is wrong. This sociometer theory A conceptual analysis of
intimate relationship with another person; this period of negative emotions and confusion is self-evaluation processes that theorizes self-
type of loneliness might be triggered by followed by the deliberative, reflective stage. esteem functions to psychologically monitor of
divorce, a breakup with a lover, or repeated Patrick, when first rejected by Peak, probably one’s degree of inclusion and exclusion in
romantic failures. reviewed the experience, searching for an social groups (proposed by Mark Leary).
Social loneliness It occurs when people feel explanation for the way he was treated, and, exchange relationship A reciprocal
cut off from their network of friends, depending on this analysis, he likely would interdependency that emphasizes the trading
acquaintances, and group members. have adopted a specific behavioral strategy to of gratifying experiences and rewards among
People who have moved to a new city, minimize the negative effects of exclusion. If, members.
children who are rejected by their peers, and however, Patrick was never able to gain communal relationship A reciprocal
new employees of large companies often acceptance in this group or another group, interdependency that emphasizes meeting the
experience social loneliness, because they are then he would reach the resignation stage: needs and interests of others rather than
no longer embedded in a network of friends alienation, helplessness, loss of self-worth, and maximizing one’s own personal outcomes.
and acquaintances (Green et al., 2001). depression. norm of reciprocity A social standard that
Both types of loneliness create feelings of Fight-or-Flight Response Some people, facing enjoins individuals to pay back in kind what
sadness, depression, emptiness, longing, exclusion, fight their way back into the group they receive from others.
shame, and self-pity. (a fight response), or they avoid further group culture The distinct ways that members
B. Inclusion and Exclusion The word ostracism rejection by seeking membership elsewhere (a of a group represent their experiences,
dates to the Greeks, who voted to punish flight response). including consensually accepted knowledge,
members of the community with banishment beliefs, rituals, customs, rules, language,
norms, and practices.
3-2b The Social Self 3-3 FROM PERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL members of one’s group as accurate
equity norm A social standard that encourages IDENTITY descriptions of oneself.
distributing rewards and resources to Social psychologists Henri Tajfel, John Turner, As social identification increases,
members in proportion to their inputs. and their colleagues originally developed individuals come to think that their
equality norm A social standard that social identity theory in an attempt to membership in the group is personally
encourages distributing rewards and resources understand the causes of conflict between significant. They feel connected and
equally among all member. people who belonged to different groups. They interdependent with other members, are glad
The self, then, is based both on personal began their work by first creating the minimal they belong to the group, feel good about the
qualities and interpersonal qualities. The intergroup situation: gatherings of two groups group, and experience strong attachment to
personal identity encompasses all those of volunteers with no history, no future the group.
unique qualities, traits, beliefs, skills, and so on together, and no real connection to one ingroup–outgroup bias The tendency to view
that differentiate one person from another. another. They randomly assigned participants the ingroup, its members, and its products
The social identity includes all those qualities to one of two groups, but they told the more positively than other groups, their
that derive from connections with and participants that the division was based on members, and their products. Ingroup
similarity to other people and groups. The some irrelevant characteristic, such as art favoritism is more common than the outgroup
personal identity is the me of the self, and the preference. Next, the participants were given rejection.
social identity is the we. surveys asking them to divide a certain amount social creativity Restricting comparisons
individualists, independents, or idiocentrics— of money among the participants in the study. between the ingroup and other groups to tasks
speak of their independence, their personal The names of the individuals were not listed and outcomes when the ingroup is more
goals, and their uniqueness. on the survey, but the participant could tell successful than other groups and avoiding
The individual is primary, first. His or her which group a person belonged to by looking areas in which other groups surpass the
rights must be recognized and put above the at his or her code number. ingroup.
right of the group as a whole. If the group’s social categorization The perceptual Stereotype threat The anxiety-provoking belief
goals aren’t compatible with the individual’s classification of people, including the self, into that others’ perceptions and evaluations will
goals, then the individual is free to go his or categories. be influenced by their negative stereotypes
her own way. stereotypes (or prototypes) A socially shared about one’s group that can, in some cases,
Collectivists—also called interdependents set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs interfere with one’s ability to perform up to
or allocentric—stress their connections to and expectations) about the qualities and one’s capabilities.
others. characteristics of the typical member of a
The group is primary, first. Its rights must particular group or social category.
be recognized and put above the right of the self-stereotyping (or autostereotyping)
individual. The individual belongs to the Accepting socially shared generalizations about
group. the prototypical characteristics attributed to
Chapter 5: WRITING STRATEGIES AND clarity of one’s writing: sentence construction • For example, we tend to use theory and
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS and word choice. hypothesis interchangeably in everyday
Sentence Construction language, but they mean different things to
Elements of Good Scientific Writing • The best way to enhance the clarity of your researchers.
• Good writing skills are essential for writing is to pay close attention to how you Conciseness
researchers. construct your sentences; awkwardly • A third important consideration in scientific
• No matter how insightful, creative, or well- constructed sentences distract and confuse the writing is conciseness. Say what you are going
designed particular studies may be, they are reader. to say as economically as possible. Conciseness
not likely to have an impact on behavioral • First, state your ideas most explicitly and is also important for practical reasons.
science if researchers do not convey their ideas straightforwardly possible. One way to do this Proofreading and Rewriting
and findings in a clear, accurate, and engaging is to avoid the passive voice. For example, • Good writers are rewriters. Writers whose
manner. compare the following sentences: first draft is ready for public distribution are
Organization • The participants were told by the extremely rare if they exist at all. Most
• The first prerequisite for clear writing is experimenter to press the button when they researchers revise their papers many times.
organization— the order in which one’s ideas were finished (passive voice). Avoiding Biased Language
are expressed. • The experimenter told the participants to • In the 1970s, the American Psychological
• The general organization of research reports press the button when they finished (active Association (APA) was one of several
in behavioral science is dictated by guidelines voice). organizations and publishers to adopt
established by the American Psychological • Second, avoid overly complicated sentences. guidelines for the use of gender-neutral (or
Association (APA). Among other things, these Be economical in the phrases you use. For nonsexist) language.
guidelines stipulate the order in which sections example, compare the following sentences: • Generic Pronouns
of a paper must appear. • “There were several different participants • Historically, writers have used generic
Clarity who had not previously been told what their pronouns such as he, him, and his to refer to
• Perhaps the fundamental requirement of IQ scores were” both men and women, as in the sentence,
scientific writing. • “Several participants did not know their IQ "Every citizen should exercise his right to
• Unlike some forms of fiction in which scores.” vote."
vagueness enhances the reader’s experience, Word Choice • However, the generic masculine pronouns to
the goal of scientific writing is to communicate • A second way to enhance the clarity of one’s refer to people of both sexes is problematic on
information. writing is to choose one’s words carefully. two counts.
• It is essential, then, that the information is Choose words that convey precisely the idea The Word Man
conveyed in a clear, articulate, and unclouded you wish to express. • Similar problems arise when the word man
manner. Two primary factors contribute to the • "Say what you mean and mean what you and its variations (e.g., mankind, the average
say" is the scientific writer's dictum. man, manpower, businessman, policeman,
mailman) are used to refer to both men and • Title page • This section reports the statistical analyses of
women. • Abstract the data collected in the study. Generally,
• Man-linked words not only foster confusion • Introduction writers begin by reporting the most important
but also maintain a system of language that • Method results and then work their way to secondary
has become outmoded. • Results findings.
Nonequivalent Forms • Discussion • Researchers are obligated to describe all
• Other instances of sexist language involve • References relevant results, even those that are contrary
using words that are not equivalent for women Title Page to their predictions.
and men. • The title should state the central topic of the Discussion
• For example, a person who mothered a child paper clearly yet concisely. As much as • Having described the results, you are free in
did something quite different from the person possible, it should mention the major variables the Discussion to interpret, evaluate, and
who fathered a child. under investigation. discuss your findings. As a first step, discuss
Avoid Labels • Titles should generally be no more than 15 the results in terms of the original purpose or
• Writers should avoid labeling people when words. The title is centered in the upper half of hypothesis of the study.
possible and particularly when the label the first page of the manuscript. • Most researchers begin the discussion with a
implies that the person is characterized in Abstract statement of the central findings and how they
terms of a single defining attribute. • The second page of a manuscript consists of relate to the goals or hypotheses of the study.
• For example, writing about "depressives" or the abstract, a summary of the content of the They then move on to discuss other findings.
"depressed people" seems to define paper. The abstract should be 150–250 words CITING AND REFERENCING PREVIOUS
individuals solely in terms of their depression. depending on the policy of a particular journal. RESEARCH
PARTS OF A MANUSCRIPT Introduction • APA style uses the author-date citation
• The guidelines in the APA Publication Manual • The Introduction section describes for the system in which others’ work is cited by
serve three purposes: reader the problem under investigation and inserting the last name of the author and the
• Help authors write more effectively presents a background context in which the year of publication at the appropriate point in
• Design to make published research articles problem can be understood. the text.
uniform Method • In this system, each work used in a paper has
• Design to facilitate the conversion of • This section describes precisely how the two parts: an in-text citation and a
manuscripts typed using word processing study was conducted. A well-written method corresponding reference list entry.
software into printed journal articles allows readers to judge the adequacy of the • In-text citations may be parenthetical and
• The APA Publication Manual specifies the procedures that were used and provides a narrative.
parts that every research report. Generally context for them to interpret the findings. • In parenthetical citations, use an ampersand
speaking, a research paper should have a Results (&) between names for work with two authors
minimum of seven major sections:
or before the last author when all names must • Keep raw data and other instruments for a
be included to avoid ambiguity. • Respect the site; disrupt normal operations reasonable period of time (APA recommends 5
• In narrative citations, always spell out the as little as possible years)
word “and.” • Make sure all participants receive the • Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications;
Reference List benefits avoid publishing papers in which authors
• All references cited in the text must appear • Avoid deception of participant present the same data, discussions, and
in a reference list that begins on a new page • Respect potential power imbalances conclusions without offering new material
labeled References immediately after the • Avoid exploitation of participants • Complete proof of compliance and lack of
discussion section. References are listed in • Avoid collecting harmful information conflict of interest statements
alphabetical order by the first author’s last Analyzing the data • Understand who owns the data
name. • Avoid going native; do not “take sides” by
ETHICAL ISSUES TO ANTICIPATE only reporting results that place the
Prior to beginning the study participants in a favorable light
• Consult the code of ethics for your • Avoid disclosing only positive results; it is
professional organization early in the process dishonest to withhold results
• Apply to the institutional review board • Respect the privacy of the participants
• Assess the potential for risk Reporting, sharing and storing data
• Consider the special needs of vulnerable • Avoid falsifying authorship, evidence, data,
populations findings or conclusions
• Consider the informed consent process • Do not plagiarize
Beginning the study • Avoid disclosing information that would
• Identify a beneficial research problem; harm participants; maintain confidentiality or,
studying the problem should be beneficial to in cases where participants do not want their
the participants identities concealed, inform them about the
• Disclose the purpose of the study; develop potential risks of non- confidentiality
the purpose statement and how it will be • Communicate in a clear, straightforward and
explained to the participants appropriate language
• Do not pressure participants into signing • Share data with others; provide copies of
consent forms; participation should be research reports to participants and
voluntary stakeholders, publishing in multiple languages
• Respect norms and charters of indigenous when needed
cultures
Collecting the data
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING: - Guidance is self-direction Not all problems are of a crisis
MEANING AND NATURE, APPROACHES, - Guidance is individual-centred. nature, but they may have that
AIM AND PURPOSES (CHAPTER 3) - Guidance is a qualified potential if ignored or allowed to
and complex and organised service. build up unnecessarily.
Guidance is a distinct comprehensive program - Guidance is based on individual Personal and social problems
rather than a set of loosely related services. It differences frequently spill over into the
is comprehensive, purposeful, and sequential. - Universality of guidance classroom. Teachers do what they
The guidance counseling program is both an - Guidance is making potential actual. can. If some annoying problems
integral part and an independent component - Preparation for future persist, then students are sent to
of the total educational program. (Borders and - Modification of Behaviour. guidance specialists, such as school
Drury, 1992) FOUR APPROACHES TO GUIDANCE counselors, for "counseling."The
Professional counseling is the application of AND COUNSELING expectation is a counselor will do
mental health, psychological, or human Meyrick (2003) identified four general something to make matters better, if
development principles, through cognitive, approaches to guidance and not for the students, at least for the
affective, behavioral, or systematic counseling, these are: teachers.
intervention strategies, that address wellness, The number of students who are
personal growth, or career development as The crisis approach to counseling and having conflicts in school is increasing.
well as pathology. (American Counseling guidance is to wait and react to Yet, the sources of the conflicts
Association, 2008) critical situations. generally remain the same.
Guidance and Counseling is a profession that When people reach a point where The crisis approach to guidance
involves the use of an integrated approach to their welfare, or the welfare of others, and counseling is an inevitable part of
the development of a well-functioning is threatened or when a decisive every school environment, but it fails
individual primarily by helping him/her to action must be taken, a counselor to address the real issues.
utilize his/her potential to the fullest and plan could provide a crisis intervention. The crisis approach is too
his/her future in accordance with his/her Crisis interventions are an expensive, inefficient, and time
abilities, interests, and needs. ( RA 9258, inevitable part of a school counselor's consuming to be the only one used in
Section 3(a) ) work. a guidance program.
NATURE OF GUIDANCE Counselors, by nature of their The remedial approach focuses on
- Guidance is education itself. training and job assignments, are identifiable deficiencies. A remedy is
- Guidance is a process. likely to be involved when students suggested or applied in the hope a
- Guidance is a continuous process lose self-control and need quick student will be able to make normal
- Guidance is related to life attention Sometimes a crisis can be progress and avoid a crisis situation.
avoided and, at other times it cannot.
 Some students do not, for different Another problem is it concentrates The developmental approach to
reasons, learn various basic skills as on what we do not want, instead of guidance emphasizes the importance
they pass through the grade levels. what we want. of the learning environment.
They may miss important By nature of its perspective, it is a Therefore, interpersonal
developmental experiences or tasks. negative way of looking at things and relationships are an essential part of
These students can benefit from a it sometimes forces us to think about this approach and everyone in the
learning or relearning approach that obedience more than achievement. school is considered a facilitator of
helps them make up for their DEVELOPMENTAL Is an attempt to personal, social, and academic
academic or social deficits. identify certain skills and experiences growth.
Through student assessments, students need to have as part of their AIM AND PURPOSES OF GUIDANCE
and then focused counseling and going to school and being successful. According to Cinco (2008), the
guidance interventions, they can Learning behaviours and tasks are ultimate aim of guidance is the total
catch up before their lack of identified and clarified for students. development of individuals.
preparation creates problems. Then, a guidance curriculum is IT IS AIMED AT MAKING THE
The preventive approach tries to planned which complements the INDIVIDUALS
anticipate problems and then stop academic curriculum INNER-MOTIVATED,
them from happening. In the developmental approach, SELF-DIRECTED AND
The problem with this approach is students have an opportunity to learn SELF-ACTUALIZED.
we must know and identify what we more about themselves and others in 1) He also added that, from the
want to prevent. advance of problem moments in their standpoint of individuals, the aims of
Teaching or counseling strategies lives. guidance are to:
are then developed for each one. Skill building in the developmental help individuals, by their own
While the term "prevention" approach is related directly to effort as far as possible, to achieve up
attempts to capture the spirit of developmental stages, tasks, and to the level of their own capacities, to
education and the goodness of learning conditions gain personal satisfaction in as many
helping, it is too limited. When the developmental approach aspects of their lives as possible, and
It requires drafting a list of things is used, it incorporates the preventive, to make their maximum contribution
to prevent or to avoid, which is likely remedial, and crisis approaches. assist them to meet and solve their
to become long and confusing. The list It is a flexible approach that draws own problems as they arise, to make
can change, depending upon who is upon whatever is appropriate to meet correct interpretations of facts, and
setting the priorities or drafting the student needs and interests. arrive at wise choices and decision.
list.