LESSON 3: INCLUSION AND who are rejected by their
IDENTITY peers, and new employees
of large companies often
From Isolation to Inclusion experience social loneliness,
because they are no longer
The Need to Belong embedded in a network of
friends and acquaintances.
Social psychologists Roy
Baumeister and Mark Leary
(1995, p. 497) argued that
Is loneliness contagious?
humans need to belong: “a
pervasive drive to form and By measuring loneliness at
maintain at least a minimum different times, researchers
quantity of lasting, positive, found that people who were
and impactful interpersonal not initially lonely were more
relationships.” They likened likely to become lonely if they
the need to belong to other were linked to a lonely
basic needs, such as hunger person. As a result,
or thirst. A person who has loneliness occurred in
not eaten will feel hungry, but clusters or at the fringes of
a person who has little the network, possibly
contact with other people will because lonely individuals
feel unhappy and lonely. were socially isolated.
Loneliness also depended on
degrees of separation. In a
Social and Emotional Loneliness social network, members are
interconnected, but often
Loneliness through intermediate
members.
Is not the same as being
Degrees of Separation: In
alone, for in some situations,
social network analysis, the
people are not troubled by
number of steps or
isolation or a relative paucity
relationships needed to link
of relations with others.
one person in the network to
Emotional Loneliness another specific person in
the network.
Occurs when the problem is
a lack of a long-term,
meaningful, intimate
Three interrelated processes
relationship with another
determine the relationship between
person.
individuals and groups:
Social Loneliness
1. Inclusion and Exclusion
In contrast, occurs when 2. Individualism and
people feel cut off from their Collectivism
network of friends, 3. Personal Identity and Social
acquaintances, and group Identity
members. People who have
moved to a new city, children
Inclusion and Exclusion
Ostracism: Excluding one or The Biology of Ostracism and
more individuals from a Inclusion
group by reducing or
eliminating contact with the Neuroimaging research
person, usually by ignoring, confirms the close
shunning, or explicitly association between social
banishing them. and physical pain. When
The word ostracism dates to people were left out of a
the Greeks, who voted to group activity, two specific
punish members of the areas of the brain—the
community with banishment dorsal anterior cingulate
by inscribing their names on cortex (dACC) and the
potshards called ostraca. anterior insula—were
particularly active.
Exclusion and Aggression
From Individualism to Collectivism
The need to belong is a
powerful force in human Individualism and
behavior, so much so that collectivism are
individuals can respond distinguishable in their
violently when that need is relative emphasis on
thwarted (Leary et al., 2003). individuals and groups.
Some individuals experience Triandis (2009) identifies four
sadness when excluded; distinct differences between
they respond to exclusion these two orientations:
passively. However others 1. Social Relations
are angered when excluded, - Collectivism
and these individuals are the endorses communal
ones who are more likely to relationships,
engage in antisocial whereas
behavior, including individualism
aggression. supports exchange
relationships and
allocations based on
the norm of
Sociometer Theory reciprocity. Sharing
A conceptual analysis of self- with others is more
evaluation processes that likely in a
theorize self-esteem collectivistic culture,
functions to psychologically as suggested by
monitor of one’s degree of responses to the
inclusion and exclusion in ultimatum game.
social groups (proposed by 2. Social Obligations
Mark Leary). - Groups with
collectivistic group
cultures stress
loyalty, hierarchy,
and conformity more selves: the relational self and
so than individualistic the collective self. Her
groups. optimal distinctiveness
3. Social Goals theory suggests that
- When members gain individuals strive to maintain
rewards through an optimal balance between
cooperative goal- their personal and collective
seeking, the identities.
allocation of those
rewards can be
based on the From Personal Identity to Social
equality norm Identity
(collectivistic) or the
equity norm Social Identity Theory
(individualistic).
(Tajfel & Turner, 1986) traces
4. Self-Concepts
the development of a
- Personal identity
collective identity back to two
includes qualities
key processes
that distinguish
(categorization and
individuals from one
identification) that occur even
another, whereas
in minimal inter-group
social identity
situations.
includes all those
qualities shared in Social Categorization
common with others.
Individualists’ Involves automatically
identities emphasize classifying people into
their personal categories.
qualities, whereas Self-Categorization:
collectivists’ Individuals classify
identities emphasize themselves into categories.
connections to other Self-Stereotyping/
people. Autostereotyping: Occurs
Cultures vary in their relative when individuals apply
emphasis on individualism stereotypes(prototypes)
and collectivism. People who based on those categories to
live in collectivistic cultures themselves.
(e.g., Asian, Eastern
Social Identification
European, African, and
Middle Eastern countries) Occurs when the individual
think of themselves as group accepts the group and its
members first and individuals characteristics as an
second, whereas people who extension of the self (Hogg,
live in individualistic cultures 2005). Identification and
(Western countries) are self- categorization become more
centered rather than group- likely when outgroups are
centered. salient and when people are
Brewer (2012) distinguishes members of smaller groups.
between two group-level
which other groups surpass
the ingroup.
Social Identity
Stereotype Threat
Assumes individuals are
motivated to maintain self- The anxiety-provoking belief
esteem and to clarify their that others’ perceptions and
understanding of themselves evaluations will be influenced
and other people (Hogg, by their negative stereotypes
2005). about one’s group that can,
in some cases, interfere with
one’s ability to perform up to
Collective Self-Esteem one’s capabilities.
Individuals’ overall
assessment of that portion of
their self-concept that is
based on their relationships
with others and membership
in social groups.
Basking in Reflected Glory
(BIRGing)
Seeking direct or indirect
association with prestigious
or successful groups or
individuals.
Cutting Off Reflected Failure
(CORFing)
Distancing oneself from a
group that performs poorly.
Ingroup-Outgroup Bias
The tendency to view the
ingroup, its members, and its
products more positively than
other groups, their members,
and their products. Ingroup
favoritism is more common
than outgroup rejection.
Social Creativity
Restricting comparisons
between the ingroup and
other groups to tasks and
outcomes when the ingroup
is more successful than other
groups and avoiding areas in
