Fairclough Analysing discourse- collocation-Leo Sullivan

Bernstein- McCutcheon

Agencies of symbolic control-Bernstein and Foucault.

Here, as in the case of the ruling class, production is more likely to be the site for
the constitution (C) of their consciousness, and again, as with the ruling class,
education will be seen as an attempt to regulate the manner or expression. This is
not to say that selected members of this group are not concerned to gain
certificates, examinations, and training helpful to positions within the economic
field. It is, however, to say that for many it is less likely to be the case, and as a
consequence the effects of education are likely to be attempts to influence
conduct, character, and manner. Although the plus and minus signs are the same
for both ruling class and working class, the relations are likely.

And ambiguity requires theology, and then more theology. Whereas in Judaism
and Islam the dislocation between God and human is resolved by the sacredness
of the social bond, the dislocation introduced by Christianity between inner and
outer is resolved through the new mediation between God and human and the
abstractness of its formulation.

In Islam and biblical Judaism there is no split between

inner and outer, person and social. They are mutually embedded in the holiness of
God made manifest in lived ritual and law. The dislocation Trivium/ Quadrivium
may well be intrinsic to Christianity as a metaphor signifying the dislocation
between inner and outer, person and society, and the new relation between the
two that Christianity makes possible. And this dislocation has preoccupied the
intellectual field, facilitated by the Church’s selective recontextualizing of Greek
thought. The problematic arising out of this dislocation has preoccupied the
West ever since. From this point of view the Trivium/Quadrivium dislocation is
a metaphor of the deep grammar of Christianity and produced by it.

Foucault - This book is about space, about language, and about death; it is about the act of seeing,
the gaze.

A POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS
Compared with the medicine of species, the notions of constitution, endemic disease, and epidemic
were of only marginal importance in the eighteenth century.
This presupposes analytical categories and frameworks which are adequate for text description (and analysis
of conversation) independently of particular research projects and problems. The objection to this position is
that it precludes what I have referred to as a transdisciplinary process in which perspectives and categories
from outside textual analysis or discourse analysis can be operationalized as ways of analysing texts which
enhance insight into the textual aspect of the social practices, processes and relations which are the focus of
the particular research project. Texual description and analysis should not be seen as prior to and independent of
social analysis and

critique — it should be seen as an open process which can be enhanced through dialogue across disciplines

and theories, rather than a coding in the terms of an autonomous analytical framework or grammar. It is
also partly a matter of the assumptions and presuppositions people make when they speak or write. What
is `said' in a text is always said against the background of what is `unsaid' — what is made explicit is
always grounded in what is left implicit( Bernstein). In a sense, making assumptions is one way of being
intertextual
— linking this text to an ill-defined penumbra of other texts, what has been said or written or at least
thought elsewhere. I shall also discuss the concepts of `genre' and `discourse', both of which

have received extensive attention in social research and theory (`genre' for instance in Media Studies,

`discourse' in the work of Foucault especially). Mediation according to Silverstone (1999) involves the `movement
of meaning' — from one social
practice to another, from one event to another, from one text to another. As this implies, mediation does not
just involve individual texts or types of text, it is in many cases a complex process which involves what I
shall call `chains' or `networks' of texts. But I am also going to link assumptions to intertextuality. I use the general
term `assumptions' to include
types of implicitness which are generally distinguished in the literature of linguistic pragmatics.

The concept of `hegemony' is central to the version of Marxism associated with Antonio Gramsci (Gramsci
1971). In a Gramscian view, politics is seen as a struggle for hegemony, a particular way of
conceptualizing power which amongst other things emphasizes how power depends upon achieving consent
or at least acquiescence rather than just having the resources to use force, and the importance of ideology in
sustaining relations of power. The concept of `hegemony' has recently been approached in terms of a
version of discourse theory in the `post-Marxist' political theory of Ernesto Laclau (Laclau and Mouffe
1985). The hegemonic struggle between political forces can be seen as partly a contention over the claims
of their particular visions and representations of the world to having a universal status (Butler et al. 2000).
Representations of `globalization' and especially of global economic change are a good example. Let us
go back to Example 4, the European Union text. It is similar to many other contemporary texts in
representing global economic change as a process without human agents, in which change is nominalized e
globalization' , see chapter 8) and so represented as itself an entity which can act as an agent (it `imposes
deep and rapid adjustments'), a process in a general and ill-defined present and without a history (it is just
what `is') which is universal (or, precisely, `global') in terms of place, and an inevitable process which must
be responded to in particular ways — an `is' which imposes an `ought', or rather a `must' (Fairclough)
Intertextuality
We can begin by noting that for any particular text or type of text, there is a set of other texts and a set of
Voices (Berntein) which are potentially relevant. Look for a diplomatic solution. There is no diplomacy with Bin
Laden or the Taliban regime.
State an ultimatum and get their response. We stated the ultimatum, they haven't responded.
Understand the causes of terror. Yes, we should try, but let there be no moral ambiguity about this:
nothing could ever justify the events of 11 September, and it is to turn justice on its head to pretend it. Bush and
Blair at the time, that terrorism is justified so long as the causes are sufficiently compelling.

Halliday's Linguistics has long been in dialogue with Bernstein's

sociological theory, and is in many ways a fruitful resource for social and critical analysis of language and
discourse. Halliday is the main source in Linguistics I have drawn upon in this book. (Halliday 1978, 1994,
Halliday and Hasan 1976, 1989, Martin 1992)

I have suggested in the book that his

theorization of the logics of equivalence and difference and of the relationship between universal and particular
could be operationalized in textual analysis. (Butler et al. 2000, Chouliaraki and Fairclough 1999, Laclau
1996, Laclau and Mouffe 1985)

An order of discourse is a particular combination or configuration of genres, discourses and styles which
constitutes the discoursal aspect of a network of social practices. As such, orders of discourse have a
relative stability and durability — though they do of course change. The term derives from Michel
Foucault, but is used in critical discourse analysis in a rather different way. We can see orders of discourse
in general terms as the social structuring of linguistic variation or difference — there are always many
different possibilities in language, but choice amongst them is socially structured. (Chouliaraki and
Fairclough 1999, Fairclough 1992, 1995b, Foucault 1984). Nominalization is a type of grammatical metaphor which
represents processes as entities by transforming
clauses (including verbs) into a type of noun.

The modality of a clause or sentence is the relationship it sets up between author and representations —
what authors commit themselves to in terms of truth or necessity. Two main types of modality are
distinguished, epistemic modality (modality of probabilities), and deontic modality (modality of necessity
and obligation).

Much action and interaction in contemporary societies is `mediated', which means that it makes use of
copying technologies which disseminate communication and preclude real interaction between `sender' and
`receiver' . These technologies include print, photography, broadcasting, and the Internet. How we live in
contemporary societies is heavily dependent upon mediated texts, which are also crucial in processes of
governance.

Accounts of contemporary social life as `postmodern' stress the blurring and breakdown of the boundaries
characteristic of `modern' societies, and the pervasive hybridity (mixing of practices, forms, etc.) which
ensues. An analysis of interdiscursive hybridity in texts provides a resource for researching such processes
in detail.

Equivalence and difference (5)

Social processes of class.' cation can be seen as involving two simultaneous 'logics': a logic of difference
which creates differences, and a logic of equivalence which subverts differences and creates new
equivalences. This process can be seen as going on in texts: meaning-making involves putting words and
expressions into new relations of equivalence and difference. (Fairclough 2000a, Laclau and Mouffe 1985)
Foucault.The Birth of the Clinic an archaeology of medical perception. Translated by A. M. Sheridan.
first published 1963 by Presses Universitaires de France. 2003, Routledge,

Like civilization, the hospital is an artificial locus in which the transplanted disease runs the risk of
losing its essential identity. It comes up against a form of complication that doctors call prison or
hospital fever: muscular asthenia, dry or coated tongue, livid face, sticky skin, diarrhoea, pale urine,
difficulty in breathing, death on the eighth or eleventh day, or on the thirteenth at the latest

Derrida, of Grammatology p7

Above all, in considering the audible as the natural milieu within which language must naturally
fragment and articulate its instituted signs, thus exercising its arbitrariness, this explanation
excludes all possibility,, of some natural relationship between speech and writing at the, very
moment that it affirms it.

1967
P 15But these roots must not compromise the structural originality of the field of
symbols, the autonomy of a domain, a production, and a play: “So it is only out
of symbols that a new symbol can grow. Omne symbolum de symbolo.”
But in both cases, the genetic root-system refers from sign to sign. No ground of
nonsignification — understood as insignificance or an intuition of a present truth
— stretches out to give it foundation under the play and the coming into being of signs. Semiotics
no longer depends on logic. Logic, according to Peirce, is only a semiotic: “Logic, in its general sense,
is, as I believe I 'have shown, only another name for semiotics (semeiotike), the quasi-necessary, or
formal, doctrine of signs.” And logic in the classical sense, logic “properly speaking,” nonformal logic
commanded by the value of truth, occupies in that semiotics only a determined and not a
fundamental level.
P6 Writing will be “phonetic,” it will be the outside, the exterior representation of language and of
this “thought-sound.” It must necessarily operate from already constituted units of signification, in
the formation of which it has played no part.

Foucault, Michel (2003) The Birth of the Clinic. London: Routledge

The calculation of the degrees of certainty p116

If one day one discovers in the calculation of probability a method that might be suitably adapted. to
complicated objects, to abstract ideas, to variable elements in medicine and physiology, one would soon
produce the highest degree of certainty to which the sciences can attain

P18disease whose spatial requisites are not necessarily those of classical

geometry.
The exact superposition of the 'body' of the disease and the body of the sick man is no more than a
historical, temporary datum. Their encounter is self-evident only for us, or, rather, we are only just
beginning to detach ourselves from it. The space of configuration of the disease and the space of
localization of the illness in the body have been superimposed, in medical experience, for only a
relatively short period of time—the period that coincides with nineteenth-century medicine and the
privileges accorded to pathological anatomy. This is the period that marks the suzerainty of the
gaze, since in the same perceptual field, following the same continuities or the same breaks,
experience reads at a glance the visible lesions of the organism and the coherence of pathological
forms; the illness is articulated exactly on the body, and its logical distribution is carried out at once
in terms of' anatomical masses. The 'glance' has simply to exercise its right of origin over truth.

Clytemnestra p69
is the queen, and Electra, for various reasons, occupies the position
of the slave. Electra uses parrēsia, and Clytemnestra does not. It
is this question of social status that creates risk, the danger, and the
possibility of retaliation . .
You can see, for instancep129
in Theognis, that people who are athuroglōssos are not able to
make any distinction between good thoughts and bad thoughts, and
that they indiscreetly intervene in other people’s lives. They make no
distinction between their own affairs and other people’s affairs. The
second important reproach that people put to being athuroglōssos
is found in Plutarch, and it is of course a much more important reproach
Parrēsia, in order to be a good parrēsia, in order to have positive
effects in the city, must be linked to good education, to intellectual
and moral formation, and to a paideia or a mathēsis. Only in this
case will parrēsia be something other than pure noise, than thorubos,
108 Di s cours e & Truth
and have some positive effects on the city. When people use parrēsia
without mathēsis, when they use an amathēs parrēsia, that leads the
city to the worst situations.p131

But if we refer to Xenophon and to the Economics where this category

of autourgoi is described, then you see the reason: the shopkeepers
and people living in the city don’t care about what’s going on
in the country, and if the enemy comes and pillages the country, they
do not worry because it is not their own property. On the contrary,
the landowners are, of course, very much interested in the defense,
in the protection of the land, of the country, and that’s the reason
why they are good fighters. People who work as farmers cannot tolerate
that their enemies pillage the farms, burn the crops, kill the
flocks and so on, and that’s the reason why they are good soldiers.p134

This distrust against agora is very clear in

this text. The agora, which is always pictured as the symbolic place
of Greek civilization, is pictured here with negative characteristics:
“We have to go to the agora sometimes, but please don’t live in the
agora, don’t spend your time speaking, discussing, and so on.”p146

Bourdieu's Sociology of Culture 447

Bourdieu's notion about misrecognition bears strong
resemblance to notions of hidden meaning which inform the
Cabbala and Cabbalistic practices. In the end this implies an 'elect':
men like Bourdieu who have been chosen to reveal the truth hidden
from the naked eye.