PROTEIN

SYNTHESIS
AND
REPRODUCTION
 Objectives

• Describe the molecular mechanisms involved in transcription, including the roles of DNA, RNA
polymerase, and transcription factors.
• Explain the process of translation, detailing the structure of ribosomes, tRNA, and the genetic code.
• Explain the anatomical and physiological differences between male and female reproductive system.
• Determine the two types of reproduction and processes.
• Understand the stages of meiosis and their importance in creating genetic diversity.
Protein synthesis
• Protein synthesis starts in the nucleus. The DNA,
which is in the nucleus, codes for protein
synthesis, and these proteins are made in the
cytoplasm. The RNA is the intermediate that
takes the code out to the ribosome in the
cytoplasm so that the protein can be made.
 Types of RNA

• mRNA- carries the information from a gene in the DNA to the cytoplasm.
- determines the sequence of amino acids for a protein.

• tRNA-brings the correct amino acid to the ribosome and mRNA in translation.

• rRNA-found on ribosomes and used to "connect" the tRNA to the mRNA.

• snRNA-found on spliceosomes. Used to remove introns.

 RNA Processing
5' cap with a modified guanine nucleotide is added.
At the 3' end 30-200 adenine nucleotides are added (poly-A-tail).

• These modifications prevent the mRNA from being degraded.

• Signal the ribosome where to attach.
• Determines how many times the mRNA can be translated before it is destroyed.

The average immature RNA is 8000 nucleotides long while the mature mRNA is 1200
nucleotides long. The noncoding regions (introns) are removed, and the remaining regions
(exons) are joined together to form the cistron. A spliceosome removes the introns.
Spliceosomes are composed of smaller particles called snRNP. The spliceosome will
splice the intron at a specific RNA sequence releasing a "lariat" RNA.
RNA Polymerase: The Builder
RNA polymerase is an enzyme responsible for
synthesizing RNA molecules. It binds to a
specific region of DNA called the promoter,
marking the start of a gene. RNA polymerase
unwinds the DNA double helix to expose the
template strand. It adds complementary RNA
nucleotides (adenine, uracil, guanine, and
cytosine) to the growing RNA chain. RNA
synthesis proceeds in the 5' to 3' direction.
DNA: The Blueprint
Structure: DNA is a double-stranded
molecule composed of nucleotides, each
containing a sugar, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine,
guanine, or cytosine).

Template: One strand of the DNA

molecule serves as a template for RNA
synthesis.

Gene: The specific DNA sequence that

codes for a protein or RNA molecule.
 Facts about Codons
A triplet of DNA nucleotides, called a codon, codes for amino acids; more than one codon
codes for the same amino acid. There are 64 codons; 61 of these code for amino acids, three
code for stop, and one codes for start and also for methionine.

2 Major Steps in Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription – the genetic information from a strand of DNA is copied into a strand of
mRNA.

2. Translation – the mRNA, with the help of the ribosome, forms a chain of amino acids,
eventually forming a protein.
Initiation: There is a region, directly
before the beginning of a gene, where
the RNA polymerase attaches, called
the promoter region. The promoter
region determines which side of the
gene will be transcribed. Transcription
factors help facilitate the attachment of
the RNA polymerase to the promoter
region. Within the promoter region,
there is a sequence of TATA
nucleotides, called the TATA box,
which helps identify where the RNA
polymerase should bind. Once the RNA
polymerase attaches, even more
transcription factors attach. RNA
polymerase unwinds the DNA at the
start point of the gene.
Elongation: RNA polymerase unwinds
the DNA and base pairs RNA
nucleotides to the DNA gene. RNA is
made 5’ → 3’ so the DNA gene is 3’ →5’.
The base pairing for RNA is adenine
with uracil and
guanine with cytosine.

Termination: RNA synthesis proceeds

until the RNA polymerase encounters a
sequence that
triggers its dissociation. RNA
polymerase passes the termination
point before the RNA molecule is
released. The RNA molecule peels off
the DNA gene and the DNA molecule
reforms. The average mRNA is 8000
base pairs long.
 Translation

Translation occurs in the ribosomes, which are located on the endoplasmic reticulum.
Here the mRNA is translated to produce a protein.

Ribosomes consist of two parts, a large subunit and a small subunit. The small
subunit contains the binding site for mRNA and the large subunit has two binding sites
for tRNA.
Initiation
The small ribosomal subunit attaches to an mRNA
molecule. At the same time an initiator tRNA molecule
recognizes and binds to a specific codon sequence on the same
mRNA molecule. A large ribosomal subunit then joins the newly
formed complex. The initiator tRNA resides in one binding site of
the ribosome called the P site, leaving the second binding site,
the A site, open. When a new tRNA molecule recognizes the
next codon sequence on the mRNA, it attaches to the open A
site. A peptide bond forms connecting the amino acid of the
tRNA in the P site to the amino acid of the tRNA in the A binding
site.
Elongation
As the ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule, the
tRNA in the P site is released and the tRNA in the A site is
translocated to the P site. The A binding site becomes vacant
again until another tRNA that recognizes the new mRNA codon
takes the open position. This pattern continues as molecules of
tRNA are released from the complex, new tRNA molecules
attach, and the amino acid chain grows.
Termination
The ribosome translates the mRNA molecule until it
reaches a termination codon on the mRNA. The growing protein
called a polypeptide chain is released from the tRNA molecule
and the ribosome splits back into large and small subunits.
The newly formed polypeptide chain undergoes several
modifications before becoming a fully functioning protein.
 REPRODUCTION

“It is the process of producing offspring that are biologically or genetically similar to the
parent organism.”

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

External Genitalia:

1. Vulva
Consist of the mons pubic, which is covered with pubic hair; two folds of tissue, called
the labia majora and labia minora , which surround a space called vestibule .
2. Mons Pubis
The mons pubis is formed at the upper
margin of the symphysis pubis and is shaped
like an inverted triangle. It is located over the
two pubic bones of the pelvic.

3. Labia Majora and Labia Minora

The labia majora : are two folds of fatty
tissue that form the lateral boundaries of the
vulva
The labia minora :are soft folds of skin that are
rich in sebaceous glands.

4. Clitoris
The clitoris is a small, sensitive structure
that, like the penis, is composed of erectile
tissue, nerves, and blood vessels
5. Vaginal Vestibule
The vaginal vestibule is a boat
shaped depression enclosed by the labia
minora and is visible when the labia
minora are separated.

6. Urethra
The opening to the urethra is just
below the clitoris.
7. The hymen
The hymen is a thin, elastic,
mucous membrane that partially covers
the vagina in young females.

8. Perineum
The perineum is the short stretch
of skin starting at the bottom of the
vulva and extending to the anus. It is a
diamond shaped area between the
symphysis pubis and the coccyx.
 Internal Reproductive Organs
1. Vagina
The vagina is a curved tube leading from the
uterus to the external opening at the vestibule. It lies
between the urinary bladder and the rectum.
Because it meets at a right angle with the cervix, the
interior wall is about 2.5cm(1inch) shorter than
posterior wall, which varies from 7-10cm
(approximately 2.8 to 4 inches). It consist of muscle
and connective tissue and is lined with epithelial
tissue , which contains folds called rugae. These
folds allow the vagina to stretch considerably during
childbirth.

2. Cervix
The cervix consist of a cervical canal with an
internal opening near the uterine corpus called the
internal os and an opening in to the vagina called
external os.
3. Uterus
The uterus (womb) is a hollow, pear-
shaped, muscular organ. The uterus lies
between the bladder and the rectum. It is
supported by two important pairs of
ligaments, the round and broad ligaments.
The uterus divided into three parts : fundus
(upper portion) , the corpus (body), the
cervix . The uterus have three layers (
perimetrium ,myometrium , endometrium
).
The following three functions of the uterus:
• Menstruation
• Pregnancy
• Labor and birth

4. Fallopian Tube
They are small, narrow and approximately
10cm (4inch) long. The tubes carry the ovum
from the ovary to the uterus by the contraction
of the cilia: hair like projections found in the
lining of the tubes. Extending from the ends of
the fallopian tubes are small, fingerlike
projection called fimbriae. It takes
approximately 5 days for the ovum to travel the
10cm from the ovary to the uterus. Fertilization
of the ovum with sperm normally takes place in
the outer third of the fallopian tube.
5. Ovaries
The ovaries are two small, almond
shaped organs located on each gland.
Approximately 2 million ova are present at
birth.
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. The penis
It is the male organ for sexual intercourse.
It has three parts: the root, which attaches to
the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft;
and the glans, which is the cone-shaped end of
the penis.

2. Semen
Semen is a fluid which contains sperm, is
expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the
penis when the man reaches sexual climax
(orgasm).
3. Scrotum
The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac
of skin that hangs behind the penis. It contains
the testicles (also called testes), as well as
many nerves and blood vessels.

4.Testicles (testes)
The testes are oval glands about the size
of 5cm long and 2.5cm wide that lie in the
scrotum, secured at either end by a structure
called the spermatic cord.
Internal Male Reproductive Organs (accessory
organs)

1.Epididymis
The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests
on the backside of each testicle.

3. Vas deferens
The vas deferens is a tube 45cm long, that
travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to
just behind the bladder.

4. Ejaculatory ducts
These are formed by the fusion of the vas
deferens and the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory
ducts empty into the urethra.
5. Urethra
In males, it has the additional function of
expelling (ejaculating) semen when the man
reaches orgasm.

6. Seminal vesicles
The seminal vesicles are sac-like
pouches that attach to the vas deferens near
the base of the bladder.

7. Prostate gland
The prostate gland is a walnut-sized
structure that is located below the urinary
bladder in front of the rectum.

8. Bulbourethral glands
These glands produce a clear, slippery
fluid that empties directly into the urethra.
 MODE OF REPRODUCTION
2 Types of Reproduction
• Sexual Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction
It is the mode of reproduction in which gamete cells from two organisms, one male and one
female, combine to form a singular zygote.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Plants that reproduce sexually have sex parts
which we know as flowers. The process of
reproduction involves the fusion of male gametes,
namely, pollen with the female gamete, also
known as ovules. This fusion results in the
formation of a zygote and an endosperm nucleus,
which grow into seeds and fruits respectively.
Flowering plants reproduce sexually through a
process called pollination.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
Involves the union of a haploid sperm and a haploid egg to form a diploid zygote, which
shares its DNA with both the parent cells.

Asexual Reproduction
Needs only one parent.

Asexual Reproduction in Humans

It takes place without fertilization of the gametes. In the case of monozygotic twins. In
this the fertilization of the egg takes place sexually and the embryo is formed but the embryo
splits into two by the method of asexual division.

Involves the process which is artificially carried out in case of invitro mode of
reproduction. In this few part of the sperm, egg is fused which undergoes development and
maturation and forms the new foetus.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Asexual reproduction in plants takes place in two ways:
•Naturally
•Artificially

Natural methods of asexual reproduction include self-propagation. The different ways in

which a plant self propagates are mentioned below:
•Plants such as ginger, onion, dahlia, potato, grow from the buds present on the surface of
the stem. A stem tuber has several eyes on the surface. Under favourable conditions, these
eyes sprout producing leafy shoots.
•In sweet potato, new plants can grow from the adventitious buds or stolons.
•In Byophyllum, the small buds o the margin of the leaves gets detached and grows into an
independent plant.
Budding
Budding is the mode of
asexual reproduction wherein a
new plant is developed from an
outgrowth known as the bud. A
bud is generally formed due to
cell division at one particular site.
Vegetative Propagation
It is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in
plants, in which new plants are produced from the
vegetative parts of the plants, i.e. roots, stems or buds.

The most common techniques of vegetative

propagation are:
Stems – Runners are the stems which usually grow in a
horizontal form above the ground. They have the nodes
where the buds are formed. These buds usually grow
into a new plant.
Roots – A new plant is developed from modified roots
called tubers. Example: Sweet Potato
Leaves – In some plants, detached leaves from the
parent plant can be used to grow a new plant. They
exhibit growth of small plants, called plantlets, on the
edge of their leaves. Example: Bryophyllum.
Fragmentation
This type of reproduction happens naturally where the small part of the plant fall off onto
soil and then begin to grow up into a new plant. This mode is often used by nurseries and
greenhouses to produce plants quickly.

Spore Formation
A spore is an asexual reproductive body, surrounded by a hard protective cover to
withstand unfavourable conditions such as high temperature and low humidity. Under
favourable conditions, the spores germinate and grow into new plants. Plants like moss and
ferns use this mode of reproduction.

Artificial Methods
Following are the artificial methods of asexual reproduction in plants:
• Cutting
• Grafting
• Layering
• Micropropagation
Cutting
•In this method, a part of a plant is cut along with the node and is buried in the soil.
•The cutting is watered regularly.
•this is the cheapest method of vegetative propagation in plants.

Grafting
•In this method, the parts of two different plants are joined together such that they continue
to grow as a single plant.
•The rooted plant is known as the stock. The other plant is known as the graft.

Layering
• It is the method in which a stem attached to a plant is lowered in the ground and covered
with soil. The stem grows roots while attached to the parent plant and then detaches as
an independent plant.
Micropropagation
• This is the method of producing a large number of plants from an explant under laboratory
conditions within a short time interval.

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

• Budding - offspring develop as a growth on the body of the parent.
• Fragmentation - As certain tiny worms grow to full size, they spontaneously break up into 8 or 9
pieces. Each of these fragments develops into a mature worm, and the process is repeated.
• Parthenogenesis - the females produce eggs, but these develop into young without ever being
fertilized.
Stages of Sexual Reproduction
• Pre-Fertilization

➢ prior to fertilization
➢ gamete formation (gametogenesis) and
transfer of gamete
➢ male gamete is called sperm
➢ female gamete is called ovum or egg

❑ In plants, this is attained by pollination.

Unisexual animals transfer gametes by
sexual intercourse.
Fertilization
• haploid male and female gametes meet and fuse
together to form a zygote

Post-Fertilization
• zygote divides mitotically and develops as an
embryo
• this process is called embryogenesis
Animals are classified into oviparous and viviparous based on whether the zygote develops outside
or inside the body respectively. In angiosperms, the zygote develops into the ovary and ovary
transforms into the fruit while ovules develop into seeds.
Types of Cell Division
• Mitosis - the process cells use to
make exact replicas of themselves.
Mitosis is observed in almost all
the body’s cells, including eyes,
skin, hair, and muscle cells.
• Meiosis - sperm or egg cells are
produced instead of identical
daughter cells as in mitosis.
- divides into four haploid
daughter cells.

Organisms that reproduce sexually by

joining gametes, a process known
as fertilization, must have a
mechanism to produce haploid
gametes. This mechanism is meiosis, a
type of cell division that halves the
number of chromosomes.
G1 phase
• Duplication of cell contents

S phase
• Duplication of DNA

Meiosis I - reduction division

Prophase I
•The nuclear envelope disintegrates.
•Chromosomes begin to condense.
•Spindle fibres appear.

Metaphase I
The homologous chromosomes align at the
equatorial plate ensuring genetic diversity among
offspring.
Anaphase I
The homologous chromosomes are pulled
towards the opposite poles.

Telophase I
The cytoplasm organizes itself and divides in
two.

Meiosis II - equational division

Prophase II
•The chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
•Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
•Centrosomes migrate to either poles.
•Spindle fibres are reformed.
Metaphase II
The chromosomes align along the equatorial plate.
On the contrary, the chromosomes in metaphase I were
in homologous pairs.

Anaphase II
Sister chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles.

Telophase II
Nuclear envelope redevelops and the spindle fibres
disappear.