MENSTRUAL CYCLE  These follicles in the ovaries produce
estrogen. Estrogen acts on the uterus
 Menstruation is a sign that a girl is
capable of producing an offspring.
The menstrual cycle is a series of
changes during which an egg
matures, and the uterus is prepared
for possible pregnancy. It entails
biological feedback system that
regulates the activities of the
structures involved in the processes.
 The menstrual cycle is influenced by
the endocrine system through the
complex interaction of the
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and
gonads (reproductive or sex organs,
specifically the ovaries and testes).
The length of the menstrual cycle
varies from woman to woman but the
average cycle is 28 days.
 The menstrual cycle can be divided
into two parts: the follicular phase
and the luteal phase.
FOLLICULAR PHASE
 The follicular phase starts on day 1
of menstruation and ends with
ovulation (day 14). The brain
(anterior pituitary) sends the Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH) to the
ovaries to signal follicles to grow
and mature.
to stimulate the thickening of the
endometrium (uterine lining).
 When estrogen peaks, it signals the
brain to release Luteinizing
Hormone (LH). The luteinizing
hormone then triggers the ovulation.
 Ovulation occurs mid-cycle, around
two weeks or so before menstruation
starts. On this day, the mature egg
from the follicle travels from the
ovary down to the fallopian tube, and
eventually into the uterus. At any
time during the egg’s journey, sperm
can fertilize it. If fertilization does
not occur during this phase, the egg
continues to the uterus and dies
within 6 to 24 hours.
LUTEAL PHASE
 The luteal phase includes the day
after ovulation to the day before your
next period. During the luteal phase,
LH and FSH levels decrease. Once it
releases its egg, the empty follicle
develops into a new structure called
the corpus luteum which produces
progesterone. If the egg isn't
fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates and estrogen level
decreases
 The hormonal changes of this phase
are associated with symptoms of
premenstrual syndrome (PMS) such
as pimples, headaches, fatigue,
dizziness, mood changes, bloating,
pain, swelling of the breasts, and
food cravings.
 The menstrual cycle can continue in
a woman for about 40 years stopping
temporarily during pregnancy and
resumes after giving birth. Some
pain, cramping, and discomfort
during menstrual periods is normal.
Excessive pain that causes you to
miss work or school must be given
medical attention.
 o Phosphate
o Deoxyribose sugar
o Nitrogenous bases

PHOSPHATE AND DEOXYRIBOSE

SUGAR

- FORMS THE BACKBONE OF

NUCLEOTIDE WHICH IS
ALTERNATELY ARRANGED.

Phosphate

- HOLDS SUGAR MOLECULES.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Deoxyribose sugar
 FIRST OBSEVED BY
FREDERICH MIESCHER IN 1869. - HOLDS THE NITROGENOUS
 STRUCTURE OF DNA WERE BASES.
DESCRIBE BY
NITROGENOUS BASES
 JAMES WATSON,
 FRANCIS CRICK
- ARE RESPONSIBLE IN
 MAURICE WILKINS.
BONDING ONE NUCLEOTIDE
TO ANOTHER.
- is a molecule that contains the o GUANINE (G)
instruction of an organism needs to o CYTOSINE (C)
develop, live and reproduce
o ADENINE (A)
- The structure of DNA is like a
o THYMINE (T)
twisted ladder because of nucleotides
- Double strand
Protein synthesis:

- the making of proteins by the cell

NUCLEOTIDE

- DNA IS COMPOSED OF TWO

NUCLEOTIDE STRANDS THAT RNA
COMBINE TOGETHER TO FORM
THE DOUBLE-HELIX - second type of nucleic acid
STRUCTURE OF DNA. - 3 nucleotides
- ONE NUCLEOTIDE STRAND IS o A five-carbon sugar,
LIKE A HALF OF A LADDER. o a phosphate and
- EACH STRAND OF o a nitrogenous base.
NUCLEOTIDE IS COMPOSED OF
THREE TYPES OF MOLECULES
- It has a base called uracil instead of
thymine. (it lacks thymine)
- Single strand
three types of RNA molecules.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- carries DNAs message from the
nucleus to the ribosome.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- carries the correct amino acids to the
ribosome so they can be added to the
growing protein chain.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- makes up part of the ribosome.
- Helps read mRNAs message and
assemble proteins.
two steps in protein synthesis
Transcription
- mRNA is made from the DNA code.
- It occurs in the nucleus where the
DNA is located.
- Involves DNA and mRNA
Translation
- Protein is made by adding amino
acids to a growing peptide chain.
- It occurs at the ribosome where
proteins are made.
- Involves mRNA, rRNA and tRNA.
Protein synthesis in detail.
1. Transcription:
• mRNA is made from the DNA
code in the nucleus
• The entire DNA code is not
copied.
• Just one gene segment that
codes for a specific protein
Transcription explained in steps:
1. The enzyme RNA polymerase,
unwinds DNA and guides the creation of
mRNA.
2. The DNA double helix unwinds and
separates at a certain point.
3. Nucleotides are added into a
complimentary strand of mRNA based on
the DNA code.
• DNA: AATTGGCAC
• mRNA: UUAACCGUG
4. This mRNA strand leaves then nucleus
and goes to the ribosome for translation
• RNA polymerase uses one
strand as a template or model
2. Translation
• mRNA is now at the ribosome
where amino acids are added to
make a long protein chain.
• Its still based on the DNA code
which is carried by mRNA.
 Translation explained in steps
1. The mRNA is read by rRNA.
• rRNA makes up the ribosome.
2. mRNA is read three bases at a time.
• Every three bases on mRNA
codes for one amino acid and is
called a codon.
Codon: Three bases on mRNA that
codes for one amino acid.
3. Tranfer RNA or tRNA carries the
correct amino acid to the ribosome.
It also reads the mRNA codon with
rRNA
Anticodon: three bases on tRNA that are
complimentary to mRNA
• mRNA codon: UUC
• tRNA anticodon: AAG
4. Amino acids are brought until the
entire mRNA is read.
• Each tRNA drops off one amino
acid then goes into the
cytoplasm to grab another.
5. The ribosome bonds each amino acid
together using a peptide bond creating a
polypeptide.
• Eventually the stop codon is
reached and the final amino acid
is added.
1. Single amino acid
2. Growing polypeptide chain
bonded with peptide bonds
3. Transfer RNA carrying amino
acids
4. Part of mRNA
5. The ribosome is made of rRNA
and proteins.
6. Finally, the protein is shipped to
the golgi body where it is altered
and shipped to where it needs to
go.
7. At its final destination, the
protein will perform the job it
was created to do.
HOW DOES RNA POLYMERASE
KNOW WHERE TO START
• mRNA has a start codon, a specific
three letter nucleotide sequence that
says begin here.
• The start codon on mRNA is the
three letters AUG
• Remember how big DNA is.
• The entire molecule is not used to
make mRNA. Just a small portion.
• A stop codon tells RNA polymerase
to stop making the protein.
Several factors determine the differences
between all the proteins in your body.
1. the order of amino acids: you change
the order and you change the protein and
its function.
2. shape of the protein: the golgi shapes
the protein after its assembled. You
change the shape, you change the protein
and function.
Denature: The shape of a protein is
changed and it stops working.
Several things can cause a protein to
denature
1. heat: each protein function at a
specific temperature.
• Heat changes the shape,
therefore changes function.
 • High fevers can be dangerous to
your body.
2. pH: each protein functions at a
specific pH.
• Increase or decrease can damage
it.
3. chemical: exposure to chemicals such
as heavy metals
1. When given a DNA code, you must
first transcribe it into mRNA
• Do this by complimentary base
pairing.
A-U
G-C
DNA: TACTTGAACTAA
mRNA: AUGAACUUGAUU
2. Next break the mRNA into codon or
three letters.
DNA: TACTTGAACTAA
mRNA: AUGAACUUGAUU
mRNA: AUG-AAC-UUG-AUU
Any change in the sequence of
nitrogenous bases in the DNA, any
mistake in the transcription of genetic
information from DNA to RNA or
pairing of the codon and anticodon, may
cause changes in the kind, sequence and
number of amino acids of proteins
synthesized by cells.
CAUSES OF MUTATION?
Mutation may be induced by factors
called mutagens. These are commonly in
the form of toxic chemicals, and harmful
radiation.
can occur in two different types of cell:
Somatic cell
Cannot be passed on to offspring.
Gametes
can be passed on the offspring
Mutations changes the sequence of
nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or
an egg cell. If fertilization happens, the
mutated gene becomes a part of the
genetic makeup of the offspring. If
mutation is severe, the resulting protein
may be non-functional, and the embryo
may not develop.
TWO TYPES OF MUTATIONS
THAT CAN OCCUR IN GAMETE
CELLS:
Gene Mutation
a permanent change in the DNA
sequence that makes up a gene.
Chromosomal Mutation
- may result in
- gene deletion, duplication or
rearrangement. It maybe caused by
 parts of chromosomes breaking off
or rejoining incorrectly.
Are Mutations Helpful or Harmful?
- Mutations happen regularly.
- Almost all mutations are neutral.
- Chemicals & UV radiation cause
mutations.
- Many mutations are repaired by
enzymes.
- Some type of skin cancers and
leukemia result from somatic
mutations.
- Some mutations may improve an
organism’s survival (beneficial).
Chromosomal Mutations
• May Involve:
– Changing the
structure of a named because affected babies make
chromosome
– The loss or gain of part
of a chromosome
Chromosomal Mutations
4 types:
Deletion
- Due to breakage, a piece of a
chromosome is lost
Inversion
- Chromosome segment breaks off
then flips around backwards and
reattaches.
Translocation
- Occurs when a gene sequence is
repeated.
Duplication
- Involves two chromosomes that
aren’t homologous. Part of one
chromosome is transferred to
another chromosomes.
- Changes that affect the structure of
chromosomes can cause problems
with growth, development, and
function of the body’s systems.
- Some changes cause medical
problems, while others may have no
effect on a person’s health. The gain
or loss of chromosome material can
lead to a variety of genetic disorders.
“Cri du chat”
- is caused by the deletion of part of
the short arm of chromosome 5.
- is French, and the condition is so
high-pitched cries that sound like a
cat.
- Affected individuals have wide-set
eyes, a small head and jaw, are
moderately to severely mentally
retarded, and very short.
Down’s syndrome
- Trisomy 21
- is usually caused by an extra copy of
chromosome 21.
Edwards syndrome
which is the second most common
trisomy after Down’s syndrome, is a
trisomy of chromosome 18. Symptoms
include mental and motor retardation and
numerous congenital anomalies causing
serious health problems. About 99% die
in infancy. However, those who live past
their first birthday, usually are quite
healthy thereafter. They have a
characteristic hand appearance with
clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
Jacobsen syndrome
is also called terminal 11q deletion
disorder. This is a very rare disorder.
Those affected have normal intelligence
or mild mental retardation, with poor or
excessive language skills. Most have a
bleeding disorder called Paris-
Trousseau syndrome
Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY)
- Men with this condition are usually
sterile and tend to have longer arms
and legs and to be taller than their
peers. They are often shy and quiet
and have a higher incidence of
speech delay.
Turner’s syndrome: (X instead of XX
or XY
Female sexual characteristics are present
but underdeveloped. They often have a
short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye
features and bone development and a
“caved-in” appearance to the chest.
karyotype
is an image of the full set of
chromosomes of an individual that
displays the normal number, size, and
shape.
may reveal the gender of a fetus or test
for defects through examination of cells
from uterine fluid – a procedure called
amniocentesis.
To produce a karyotype, chromosomes
derived from actively dividing white
blood cells.
The homologous pairs of chromosomes
are identified and arranged in order by
size, with the exception of the sex
chromosomes.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
A modern biotechnology that produces
transgenic or GM crops of organisms.
Scientists have developed methods to
move genes from one species into
another. When DNA from two different
species are joined together, it is called
recombinant DNA.
APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC
ENGINEERING AND RECOMBINANT
DNA
- Field of Medicine: Gene Therapy
and Vaccine
- Genetically-Modified Organism that:
- Resistance to pest
- Are Bigger and better quality
- Produce extra vitamins and minerals
- Clean oil spill