SCIENCE REVIEWER

Feedback Mechanism is the process through which the level of one substance
influences the level of another substance. Homeostasis refers to the state of balance
within a system.
Positive feedback mechanism - increases the production of a product and stimulates
the production of another product.
Stimulatory - is the substance that stimulates the production of a product.
Negative feedback mechanism - inhibits the production of a product.
Inhibitory - is the substance that inhibits the production of a product.

Once the ovary produces estrogen, the productions of GnRH (Gonadotropin

Releasing Hormone and LH (Luteinizing Hormone) in the hypothalamus and in
the anterior lobe of pituitary gland, respectively, are stimulated. The production of
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) in the anterior lobe of pituitary gland is also
triggered. The production of estrogen, GnRH, LH and FSH is a positive feedback
mechanism. Positive feedback mechanism increases the production of a product
and stimulates the production of another product. The substance that stimulates the
production of a product is called stimulatory.

when the level of LH in the blood gets higher, it will produce progesterone. The production of
progesterone inhibits the production of
GnRH and LH. This is an example of a negative feedback mechanism.

- Nervous system is the control center of the body. It includes the brain, spinal cord
and nerves.
-The two main divisions of the nervous system are the Central Nervous System (CNS)
and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Central Nervous System(CNS) : Includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for information
processing and integration.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Comprises nerves and ganglia outside the CNS,
facilitating communication between the central nervous system and the rest of the body.
-Central Nervous System consist of the brain and spinal cord.
-The brain is divided into three parts; the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem.
-Peripheral Nervous System connects the brain and spinal cord to the other body
Parts.
-The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell or neuron.
-Neurons have dendrites and axon that aid in transmitting message.
-Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of the body functions in
equilibrium with other parts.
-Neuron is the basic unit of nervous system.
Somatic Nervous System - Responsible for voluntary control of skeletal muscles and the
reception of external stimuli. It enables conscious movements and sensory experiences,
allowing individuals to interact with their environment through actions.
Autonomic Nervous System - Regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, and pupillary response. It has two sub-divisions; Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Nervous system.
Sympathetic - Activates "fight or flight" responses, increasing heart rate and redirecting
blood flow.
Parasympathetic - the "rest and digest" state, slowing heart rate and enhancing digestion for
relaxation and reduce body activities.

Feedback mechanisms are crucial in the nervous system for maintaining homeostasis,
adapting to changes, and coordinating responses to stimuli
Negative feedback - Thermoregulatio: maintaining body temperature beyond the set point.. the
body responds in such a way as to reverse direction of change. Because this tends to keep
things constant, it allows us to maintain homeostasis.
Positive feedback - Blood clotting: formation of a blood clot to stop bleeding.. occurs to
increase the change or output the result of a reaction is amplified to make it occur more quickly.
Homeostasis is maintained in the body by regulating the body temperature, blood pressure,
pH, and glucose concentration

DNA Replication - the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - complex compound of high molecular weight that functions in cellular
protein synthesis and replaces DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as a carrier of genetic codes in
some viruses.
Nitrogenous Base - a molecule that contains nitrogen and has the chemical properties of a
base. The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine
(C). The nitrogenous bases in RNA are the same, with one exception: adenine (A), guanine (G),
uracil (U), and cytosine (C).
Transcription – the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new
molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).
Translation – The process of converting the information in mRNA (messenger RNA) into a
sequence of amino acids to make a protein.
Mutation – a change in the base sequence of the DNA that alters individual genes.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is shaped like a double helix and contains the codes that
determine our traits and characteristics. It's like a blueprint that guides the construction and
operation of living organisms.
James Watsons and Francis Crick In 1953, they concluded that the DNA molecule appears
as a three-dimensional double helix.
Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins They used X-ray crystallography to study DNA's
structure, which helped Watson and Crick with their discovery.
DNA contains Deoxyribonucleic acid & Made of nucleotide monomers
DNA double helix Consists of two nucleotide chains & Each nucleotide consists of a sugar
molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base
Base Pairs - Adenine (A) bonds with thymine (T) & Cytosine (C) bonds with guanine (G).
DNA is primarily located in the cell nucleus, forming the structure known as chromosomes.
Small amounts of DNA are also found in the mitochondria.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) iis another nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis
and various cellular processes. It is found in the cells of living organisms. It is found in the
cytoplasm, nucleus, and in the ribosome.
4 main enzymes responsible for replication
Helicase - Unzips the double-stranded DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds between nucleotide
pairs, creating two single-stranded templates.
Primase - Synthesizes short RNA primers complementary to the single-stranded DNA
templates, providing starting points for DNA synthesis.
DNA Polymerase - Adds complementary nucleotides to the growing DNA strands based on the
sequence of the template strand during replication.
Ligase - Joins together the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand by catalyzing the formation
of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides, ensuring the synthesis of a continuous
DNA strand.

Protein Synthesis - the cellular process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is
transcribed into mRNA, and then translated by ribosomes to synthesize
- this complex biological mechanism involves transcription, mRNA processing, and
translation
Codon a sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino
acid or stop signal during protein synthesis
RNA polymerase - an enzyme that reads the DNA template strand and synthesizes a
complementary mRNA (messenger RNA) strand during transcription.
Topoisomerase - It prevents the DNA strands from tangling and ensures smooth transcription
by introducing breaks and resealing the DNA backbone.
Release of the mRNA - mRNA goes to the ribosome and this is where translation happens.

TRANSLATION PROCESS
1. The mature mRNA binds to ribosomes in the cytoplasm
2. The ribosomes read the mRNA in sets of three nucleotides called codons.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring specific amino acids to the ribosome, based on
the complementary codons on the mRNA. (anti codons)
4. Forming of polypeptide chain - Amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide
chain, which eventually folds into a functional protein.

THE TRANSLATION PROCESS STOPS WHEN THE RIBOSOME ENCOUNTERS A STOP

CODON ON THE MRNA. STOP CODONS (UAA, UAG, AND UGA) DO NOT CODE FOR ANY
AMINO ACIDS BUT SERVE AS SIGNALS TO TERMINATE TRANSLATION. IN FINDING THE
CORRESPONDING AMINO ACID OF A CODON, YOU SHOULD BASE IN THE MRNA.