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Reproductive System
Male:

REPRODUCTIVE MALE PARTS:

Scrotum - Protects and regulates the temperature of the testes
Testicles - Produce sperm and male hormone TESTOSTERONE
Epididymis - Stores sperms for six weeks to ripen them to maturity
Cowper’s gland - Secrete a clear, sticky fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the urethra
Vas Deferens - A long tube connected to Epididymis that carries sperm to urethra
Seminal Vesicles - Releases fructose that give energy to the sperm
Prostate Gland - Secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes acid in female reproductive tract
Urethra - A tube where semen and urine pass through to leave the body
Penis - It is for intercourse, reproduction, and urination. Deposits semen during intercourse
Sperm - Cells that are produced by males to fertilize egg cells
Semen - A fluid that nourishes and helps sperm cells move through the urethra
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TIMELINE FOR MEN

Infancy - Start of erection
11 - 14 years old - Secondary sex characteristics appear/PUBERTY
13 - 16 years old - Producing sperm/PUBERTY
Late teens - URGES FOR SEX
Throughout life - sex urge and ability to father children

Female:

REPRODUCTIVE FEMALE PARTS:

Ovary - Store and release egg cells. Produce female hormones ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE
Fallopian Tubes - Tubes attached to the ovary and are pathway for egg cells during ovulation
Uterus - Houses fertilized eggs and protects and nourishes a fetus
Cervix - An opening of the uterus
Vagina - “Birth Canal”, a tube leading from the uterus to the outside of the body.
Urethra - The opening to the bladder
Egg Cells/Ova - Largest cell of females. Used in creating a fetus
Estrogen - It spurs the onset of puberty and is responsible for OVULATION
Progesterone - Builds a lining of the uterus to prepare for fertilized egg
Ovulation - When egg is released from the ovary. Waits for fertilization at the fallopian tubes
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MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle lasts for 28 days. If the egg is not fertilized, the lining of the uterus breaks
down and are released. If the egg is fertilized, the egg will begin to become a zygote.
Zygote - First cells of new organisms. Time from fertilization to implantation
Embryo - An 8 weeks old Zygote
Fetus - After 8 weeks, the embryo becomes a fetus

Day 1 - Menstruation starts (bleeding)

Day 5 - Ending of menstruation
Day 14 - Ovum becomes mature and releases from the ovary
Day 26 - Absence of fertilization causes estrogen and progesterone levels to drop
Day 28 - Menstruation starts again :^(

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Vulva:
- Labia Majora: Rounded folds of adipose tissue and skin. Protects external reproductive
organs
- Labia Minora: Folds of skin between labia majora. Merge to form a hood over clitoris
- Clitoris: Capable of erections during intercourse. For pleasure

REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
Menstrual Cycle - Changes in uterine lining
Menarche - First menstrual period
Menopause - Termination of cycle due to normal aging of ovaries

TIMELINE FOR WOMEN

9 - 12 years old - Secondary sex characteristics appear
11 -14 years old - Menstrual cycle begins
Late 20’s to 30’s - PEAK OF URGES FOR SEX
45 - 55 years old - Menopause
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Release hormones to signal cells to behave in a certain way. A slows but widespread
communication in our body.
Consists of:
ENDOCRINE GLANDS:
1. Pituitary Gland
- “MASTER GLAND”
- Controls other glands, produce hormones, and secretes endorphins
- Gets information from the HYPOTHALIMUS to perform its functions
- 2 AREAS OF PITUITARY GLAND
> POSTERIOR PITUITARY
-> Produces OXYTOCIN
>> Triggers contractions of the uterus during labor
>> Stimulates milk ejection from mammary glands
-> Produces ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)
>> Decreases urine production by causing kidneys to return more water to blood
>> Decreases water loss through sweating and constriction of arterioles

> ANTERIOR PITUITARY

-> Regulates activity of thyroid, adrenals, and reproductive glands
-> Produces GROWTH HORMONE
>> Growth of bone and other body tissues
-> Produces PROLACTIN
>> Milk production in women
-> Produces THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)
>> Production of thyroid hormones
-> Produces ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)
>> Production of adrenal hormones
-> Produces LUTEINIZING HORMONE
>> Stimulates ovulation and testosterone secretion
-> Produces FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
>> stimulates sperm production

2. PINEAL GLAND
- Produces melatonin throughout the night

3. THYROID GLAND
- Thyroid cells are the only cells that can absorb IODINE
- Combines IODINE and TYROSINE (T3 and T4) and are released into the bloodstream
- Transported throughout the body where they CONTROL METABOLISM
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- Thyroxine (T4)
> Controlling the rate of metabolic processes in the body such as:
-> CARBOHYDRATE metabolism
-> Protein synthesis and breakdown
-> Cardiovascular, renal and brain function
> Influence physical development

-Triiodothyronine (T3)
> Has 3 iodine molecules attached to its structure
> Most powerful thyroid hormone
> Affects almost every process in the body, including body temperature, growth, and heart
rate

4. ADRENAL GLANDS
- Two glands located on top of each kidney
- 2 PARTS:
> ADRENAL CORTEX
-> Secretes GLUCOCORTICOIDS
>> responsible for the control of fat, carbohydrates, protein metabolism
-> MINERALOCORTICOIDS
>> Maintain electrolyte balance
> MEDULLA
-> Secretes EPINEPHRIN/ADRENALIN
>> hormone of emergency
-> NOREPINEPHRINE
>> both hormone and neurotransmitter
>> gives the body sudden energy in times of stress
>> FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE

5. PANCREAS
- Large gland located below and behind the stomach
- Consists of cells called ISLETS OF LANGERHANS that secrete:
> INSULIN
-> Decreases blood sugar level
> GLUCAGON
-> Increases blood sugar level

6. GONADS (TESTIS/OVARY)
- Sex glands
- Control development of secondary sex characteristics. Changes from childhood to adulthood
- OVARIES:
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> Secrete ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE

- TESTES:
> Secrete TESTOSTERONE

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

- Blueprint for life
- Portions of DNA are called genes
- It cannot leave the nucleus
- DNA is DOUBLE STRANDED
- A molecule that contains instructions an organism needs to develop, live and reproduce.
- These instructions are found inside every cell
- Passed down from parents to their offspring

DNA STRUCTURE
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THYMINE = ADENINE
GUANINE = CYTOSINE
CYTOSINE = GUANINE
ADENINE = THYMINE

- DNA is made up of NUCLEOTIDES

- NUCLEOTIDES are made of:
> Phosphate group
> 5-carbon sugar
> Nitrogenous base
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HISTORY OF DNA
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DNA REPLICATION
- DNA is copied during the S or Synthesis Phase of INTERPHASE
- New cells will need identical DNA strands
- S Phase occurs at the nucleus of eukaryotes

KEY PLAYERS
1. Helicase
- The “unzipping enzyme”
- Breaks down hydrogen bonding of the nucleotides

2. DNA Polymerase
- The “builder”
- Synthesizes the nucleotides to produce new DNA

3. Primase
- The “initializer”
- Directs or guides DNA Polymerase where to synthesize

4. Ligase
- The “gluer”
- Binds DNA fragments to one another

TIMELINE
1. Begins at ORIGINS OF REPLICATION
2. Two strands open forming REPLICATION FORKS (Y-SHAPED REGION)
3. New strands grow at the forks
4. HELICASE unwinds and separates the 2 DNA strands
5. SINGLE-STRAND BINDING PROTEINS attach and keep the 2 DNA strands separated
6. RNA PRIMERS (PRIMASE) present to start the addition of new nucleotides
7. DNA POLYMERASE builds the new strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction
8. The LEADING STRAND is synthesized as a single strand
9. The LAGGING STRAND is synthesized discontinuously against overall direction of replication
(OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS are series of short segments on the lagging strand)
10. Ligase then binds the fragments, sealing them together

RNA
- Single stranded that does not have to stay in the nucleus
- Main job is to build proteins
- The building blocks of RNA are NUCLEOTIDES
- It is made up of 3 things:
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> SUGAR - Ribose (instead of Deoxyribose)

> PHOSPHATE
> NITROGEN BASE

URACIL REPLACES THYMINE IN RNA

URACIL = ADENINE
GUANINE = CYTOSINE
CYTOSINE = GUANINE
ADENINE = URACIL

TYPES OF RNA
1. mRNA
- Carries information from a gene in DNA to the cytoplasm where ribosomes are located.

2. rRNA
- Consist of subunits and carry out an enzyme-like role. Makes up the major part of ribosomes

3. tRNA
-Carries specific amino acids to the ribosome

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- Codon: Three bases code for a specific protein
- Codons code for 20 AMINO ACIDS
- It is possible to have 64 different combinations for amino acids.
- The codons are the template for protein synthesis
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TRANSCRIPTION
-The process of copying DNA into RNA making it possible for a gene in DNA to be copied
- Occurs in the NUCLEUS
- Creating mRNA

TRANSLATION
- In here mRNA along with tRNA and ribosomes work together to become proteins