ANAPHY REVIEWER - brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors

- FAST ACTING control system

CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION - Responds to internal & external s:muli
- SENSORY RECEPTORS – detects changes
ANATOMY - is the study of the structure and shape of - Messages are sent to the CENTRAL NERVOUS
the body (large body structures) SYSTEM – assesses informa:on & ac:vates effector
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- secretes chemical molecules called hormones
PHYSIOLOGY - is the study of how the body and its
into the blood
parts work or funcDon
- Body Func9ons controlled by hormones:
o Growth
GROSS ANATOMY - is the study of anatomical
o Reproduc9on
structures that can be seen by the naked eye
o use of nutrients
- Endocrine Gland includes:
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY - is the study of Dny
o Pituitary Gland
anatomical structures such as 9ssues and cells
o Thyroid & Parathyroid
o Adrenal Gland
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
o Thymus
o Pancreas
o Pineal Gland
o Ovaries & Testes
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- Heart – pumps blood; blood vessels – transports
blood to 9ssues
- Blood transports oxygen & carbon dioxide,
nutrients, & hormones
NASAL FLARING – nostrils widen while breathing
RBC – hemoglobin & oxygen
WBC – fights infec9on
PLATELETS – for blood cloPng
PLASMA - liquid por9on of blood

ARTERY – carries blood AWAY from the heart

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- external covering of the body (skin) including
the hair and fingernails
- waterproofs the body
- cushions and protects the deeper 9ssues
- sunlight = produces vitamin D
- excretes salts in perspira9on (sweaDng)
- regulate body temperature
- Sensory receptors located in the skin alert us to
what is happening at the body surface.
SKELETAL SYSTEM (206 BONES)
- bones, car9lages, and joints
- supports the body & provides a framework that
causes movement
- protects vital organs (ex. Skull)
- sites where blood cells are formed
- acts as a storehouse for minerals (CALCUIM)
MUSCULAR SYSTEM (620 MUSCLES)
- to contract, or shorten for movements to occurs
- produce movements for bones
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(malinis)
VEINS – carries blood TOWARDS the heart (madumi)
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- lympha9c vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid
organs
- returning leaked fluids to bloodstream
- lymph nodes/other lymphoid organs help to
cleanse the blood
- house WBC involved in immunity – resist against
infec9on
ARTERY/VEINS – maliit
ARTERIOLES/VENULES – Malaki
CELL has a SEMI PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
– allows small par9cles to pass through
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs
- supplies oxygen; remove carbon dioxide
- ALVEOLI – allows exchange of gasses
- ASPIRATION - something enters your airway or
lungs
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 - Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small & large
intes9ne, rectum, accessory organs
- Breaks down food
- Allows nutrient absorp9on to blood
- Eliminates indiges9ble material (feces)
CARBS/SUGAR – glucose
PROTIEN – amino acids
FATS – faUy acids
URINARY SYSTEM
- Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
- Eliminates nitrogenous waste
- Maintains acid-base balance
- Regulates water & electrolyte balance
- Regulate normal blood pressure (renin)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM – produce offspring
o Cellular – new cells are used for growth and
repair
o Organism – reproduc9ve system handles
the task
8. GROWTH – increases the cell size or body size
(increase no. of cells)
SURVIVAL NEEDS
1. NUTRIENTS – chemicals used for energy
and cell building (carbs, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, minerals)
2. OXYGEN – required for chemical reac9on
- - coopera9on of respiratory
& cardiovascular
3. WATER – 60% to 80% of body weight
- - most abundant chemical
- - fluid base for se/excre9on
4. NORMAL BODY TEMP – 37°C or 98.6 F
Below – can make a reac9on slow and
stop
Above - chemical reac9ons proceeds
to rapidly
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – must be
appropriate for gas exchange

LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
ANATOMICAL POSITION – standard posi9on used to
avoid confusion
- - posi9on regardless of the actual body
posi9on
MAINTAINING LIFE: NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
ORIENTATIONAL & DIRECTIONAL TERMS
1. MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES – separates
SUPERIOR (cephalic) – upper part; above
“inside” from “outside”
INFERIOR (caudal) -lower part; below
2. MOVEMENT – locomo9on (loc to another)
ANTERIOR (ventral) – in front of
- - Movement of substance
POSTERIOR (dorsal) – behind
3. RESPONSIVENES (irritability) – ability to sense
MEDIAL – midline of the body
change & react
LATERAL – away from the midline of the body
VasoconstricDon - narrowing of blood vessels
INTERMEDIATE – a more medial & more lateral
(taas bp)
SUPERFICIAL (external) – at body surface
VasodilaDon – widening of blood vessels
DEEP (internal) – more internal
(baba bp)
SepDcemia – infec9on in blood
4. DIGESTION – breakdown & absorp9on of
nutrients
5. METABOLISM – chemical reac9ons within the
body
- - Breaks down complex to smaller
molecules
- - Build larger from smaller
molecules
- - Produces ATP

6. EXCRETION – eliminates excreta (waste)

through urine, feces, sweat
7. REPRODUCTION – occurs on cellular organism
level

BODY PLANES & SECTIONS
SECTION – internal structures of the body
PLANE – through the body wall or organ; made along
imaginary like
SAGITTAL SECTION – cut along lengthwise or
longitudinal plane of the body
MEDIAN (midsagi`al) SECTION – right & lep parts are
equal
FRONTAL (coronal) SECTION -anterior & posterior
parts are cut
TRANSVERSE (cross) SECTION – superior & inferior
parts
BODY CAVITIES
DORSAL BODY CAVITY
- CRANIAL BODY CAVITY – space in skull/ brain
- SPINAL CAVITY – cranial cavity to end of the
spinal cord
VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
- THORACIC CAVITY – separated from the rest of
the ventral cavity
DIAPHRAGM – dome-shaped muscle
MEDIASTINUM – separates lungs into lep and
right cavi9es
- ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY – inferior to
diaphragm
- ABDOMINAL CAVITY – stomach, liver, intes9ne
& other organs
- PELVIC CAVITY – reproduc9ve organs, bladders,
rectum
OTHER BODY CAVITIES
ORAL & DIGESTIVE CAVITY – teeth, tongue;
con9nuous w/diges9ve organs to anus
NASAL CAVITY – within/posterior to the nose ; part of
respiratory
ORBITAL CAVITIES – skull house the eyes and present
them in an anterior posi9on
MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES – 9ny bones that transmit
sound vibra9ons to the hearing receptors.
HOMEOSTASIS
– body’s ability to maintain stable internal
condi9ons even though the outside world is
con9nuously changing.
– Homeo – the same; stasis – standing s9ll
CONTROL SYSTEMS
RECEPTORS monitors and responds to changes in
environment. It responds to such changes, called
sDmuli, by sending informa9on (input) to the second
component, the control center. Informa9on flows
from the receptor to the control center along the
efferent pathway. The CONTROL CENTER - analyzes the
informa9on; determines response/course of ac9on.
EFFECTOR, provides the means for the control center’s
response (output) to the s9mulus. Informa9on flows
from the control center to the effector along the
afferent pathway
FEEDBACK – influence the s9mulus
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – reducing the amount of
change
POSITIVE FEEDBACK – increasing the amount of
change
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
- As we age, our body organs become less
efficient, and our internal condi9ons become
less and less stable
CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY
MATTER – anything that occupies space & has mass
ELEMENTS - fundamental units of maUer
- - 96% of the body is made from these 4
elements
Oxygen (O) oxida9on of glucose and other food
fuels, during which cellular energy
(ATP) is produced.
Carbon carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
(C) nucleic acids.
Hydrogen component of most organic
(H) molecules; as an ion (charged atom),
it influences the pH of body fluids.
Nitrogen component of proteins and nucleic
(N) acids (gene9c material)
Calcium – for muscle contrac9on, neural transmission
and blood cloPng
Phosphorus – present in nucleic acid & many Proteins;
forms parts of the high-energy compound ATP
Potassium - conduc9on of nerve impulses and for
muscle contrac9on.
Sulfur - component of proteins
Sodium - important for water balance, conduc9on of
nerve impulses, and muscle contrac9on
Chlorine - most abundant extracellular anion
Magnesium - cofactor for enzyme ac9vity in a number
of metabolic reac9ons.
Iodine - to make func9onal thyroid hormones.
Iron - component of the hemoglobin molecule
(transports oxygen within red blood cells) and
enzymes.
TEMPERATURE – turn more rapidly & collide more
forcefully
RED - nutrients
WHITE - infec9on
PLATELETS - cloPng
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
A – vision
D – regulates calcium
E – wound healing; fer9lity
K – blood cloPng & bones
PROTEINS
- Construc9on materials for body 9ssues
- Increase osmo9c pressure (stop flow)
- Vital role in cell func9on
- Building blocks called amino acids
CHAPTER 3: CELLS AND TISSUES
CELLS
- Structural units of all living things
- 50 – 100 trillion cells
SOMATIC CELLS / SEX CELLS
- egg & sperm
OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
THE CELL THEORY
- A cell is the basic structural and func9onal unit of
living organisms; proper9es of life.
- The ac9vity of an organism depends on the
collec9ve ac9vi9es of its cells.
- According to the principle of complementarity,
the ac9vi9es of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy), which determines func9on
(physiology).
- Con9nuity of life has a cellular basis.
MOST CELLS ARE COMPOSED OF: (60% water)
1. Oxygen 3. Hydrogen
2. Carbon 4. Nitrogen
PARTS OF CELL
1. Nucleus – control center; contains DNA (building
proteins & cell reproduc9on)
3 REGIONS
Nuclear Envelope
- Consists of a double membrane that bounds the
nucleus
- Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of
material with the rest of the cell
- Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm
Nucleolus
- Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining
nucleoli
- Sites of ribosome assembly
- Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through
nuclear pores to serve as the site of protein
synthesis
ChromaDn
- Composed of DNA
- ScaUered throughout the nucleus and present
when the cell is not dividing
- Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called
chromosomes when the cell divides
2. Plasma Membrane
- Transparent barrier for cell contents
- Contains cell contents
- Separates cell contents from outside
o Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads”
are oriented on the inner and outer surfaces
of the membrane
o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar
“tails” form the center (interior) of the
membrane
NOTE!!! Protein in water affects osmosis
Glycogen stored form of glucose in the body
Glycoproteins are branched sugars aUached to
proteins that abut the extracellular space
Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, s9cky, sugar-rich area on the
cell’s surface
3. Cytoplasm
- material outside the nucleus and inside the
plasma membrane
- Site of most cellular ac9vi9es
- Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM
1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other
elements and contains nutrients and
electrolytes
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, such
as stored nutrients or cell products,
that float in the cytosol
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of
the cell that perform func9ons for the
cell
MITOCHONDRIA
- POWERHOUSE of the cell
 - Carry out reac9ons in which oxygen is used to o FAT CELLS - Lipid droplets stored in
break down food into ATP molecules cytoplasm
RIBOSOMES
- Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
- Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETEICULUM (ER)
- Fluid-filled funnels (canals) that carry substances CELLS THAT FIGHTS DISEASE
within the cell o WBC such as the macrophage(kumakain)
ROUGH ER – abundant in cells that make and “phago” means “to eat”
export of proteins o Digests infec9ous microorganisms
SMOOTH ER - lack of ribosomes; Func9ons in CELL THAT GATHERS INFORMATION AND CONTROLS
lipid metabolism; Detoxifica9on of drugs and BODY FUNCTIONS
pes9cides o NERVE CELLS or neurons
GOLGI APPARATUS CELLS OF REPRODUCTION
- Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the o OOCYTE – female
rough ER via transport vesicles o SPERM – male
LYSOSOMES - Built for swimming to the egg for fer9liza9on
- La9n word “lysis” means ”to destroy”
- Membranous “bags” that contain diges9ve CELLS HAVE THE ABILITY TO:
enzymes o Metabolize
PERIXOSOMES o Digest food
- Break down free radicals (highly reac9ve o Dispose of wastes
chemicals) o Reproduce
- Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide o Grow
and then to water o Move
CYTOSKELETON o Respond to a sDmulus
- La9n word “cyto” means cell; cytology – study of
cell MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
- Provides the cell with an internal framework that SOLUTION – homogenous mixture of 2 components
determines cell shape SOLVENT - dissolving medium (main solvent is
water)
CELL EXTENSION SOLUTE - components in smaller quan99es
- Cilia move materials across the cell surface (to within a solu9on
move mucus) INTRACELLULAR FLUID
- Flagella propel the cell (only flagellated cell in the - Solu9on containing gases, nutrients, and salts
human body is sperm) dissolved in water
- Microvilli are 9ny, fingerlike extensions of the LYMPH – fluids
plasma membrane (Increase surface area for EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (intersDDal fluid)
absorp9on) - Contains thousands of ingredients, such as
nutrients, hormones, neurotransmiUers, salts,
CELLS THAT CONNECTS BODY PARTS waste products
FIBROBLAST
o “blast” means to build TWO BASIC METHODS OF TRANSPORT
o Secretes cable-like fibers PASSIVE – energy is NOT needed
ERYTHROCYTES ACTIVE – energy is NEEDED
o “erythro” means red; “cyte” means cell
o Carries oxygen in the bloodstream DIFFUSION
CELLS THAT COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS - There is movement from high concentra9on to
o EPITHELIAL CELL – packs together in sheets; low concentra9on
Intermediate fibers resist tearing during - KineDc energy (energy of mo9on) causes the
rubbing or pulling molecules to move about randomly
CELLS THAT MOVE ORGANS AND BODY PARTS
o SKELETAL MUSCLE & SMOOTH MUSCLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CELLS - Contrac9le filaments allow cells to KINETIC ENERGY
shorten forcefully SIZE OF PARTICLES – the smaller the faster
CELLS THAT STORES NUTRIENTS TEMPERATURE – higher temp the faster
CONCENTRATION – concentrated is faster
TYPES OF DIFFUSION TWO MAIN ELEMENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
SIMPLE DIFFUSION - small enough to pass through 1. GROUND SUBSTANCE - mostly water, along with
membrane pores adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
1. OSMOSIS - simple diffusion of water across a 2. FIBERS
selec9vely permeable membrane o Collagen (white) fibers
Isotonic soluDons have the same solute; o Elas9c (yellow) fibers
no visible changes in the cell o Re9cular fibers (a type of collagen)
Hypertonic soluDons contain more solutes
than the cells do; the cells will begin to BONE (osseous 9ssue)
shrink - Osteocytes (bone cells) siPng in lacunae
Hypotonic soluDons contain fewer solutes (cavi9es)
(more water) than the cells do; cells will - Hard matrix of calcium salts
plump - Large numbers of collagen fibers
FACILITATED DIFFUSION - Transports lipid-insoluble Func9on is to protect and support the body
and large substances CARTILAGE
- Less hard and more flexible than bone
PASSIVE PROCESSES - Chondrocyte (car9lage cell) is the major cell type
FILTRATION - Water and solutes are forced through a TYPES
membrane by fluid, or hydrosta9c, pressure 1. HYALINE CARTILAGE - Most widespread type
of car9lage
TISSUES Loca9ons:
- Groups of cells with similar structure and Trachea
func9on AUaches ribs to the breastbone
Covers ends of long bones
EPITHELIAL TISSUE En9re fetal skeleton prior to birth
Loca9ons: Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones
§ Body coverings - Cover and line body 2. ELASTIC CARTILAGE (not pictured)- Provides
surfaces elas9city
§ Body linings - form sheets with one free, the Loca9on:
apical, and anchored surface, the basement supports the external ear
membrane 3. FIBROCARTILAGE - Highly compressible
§ Glandular Dssue - Avascular (no blood Loca9on:
supply); regenerates easily if well nourished forms cushion like discs between vertebrae of
Func9ons; the spinal column
§ Protec9on
§ Absorp9on DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Main matrix element is
§ Filtra9on collagen fiber
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE LOCATIONS:
- SIMPLE – one layer - Tendons—aUach skeletal muscle to bone
- STRATIFIED – more than one layer - Ligaments—aUach bone to bone at joints and are
SHAPE OF CELLS more elas9c than tendons
- SQUAMOUS – flaUened; like fish scales - Dermis—lower layers of the skin
- CUBOIDAL – cube-shaped; like dine LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- COLUMNAR – shaped like columns - Areolar - Sop, pliable 9ssue like “cobwebs”
- Adipose (fat) - Insulates the body; Protects some
CONNECTIVE TISSUE organs; Serves as a site of fuel storage
- Found everywhere in the body to connect body - ReDcular - Delicate network of interwoven fibers
parts with re9cular cells
- Includes the most abundant and widely Loca9ons
distributed 9ssues o Lymph nodes
FUNCTIONS o Spleen
o Protec9on o Bone marrow
o Support MUSCLE TISSUES
o Binding - Func9on is to contract, or shorten, to produce
movement
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX - Nonliving material that
surrounds living cells SKELETAL
 - aUached to the skeleton and pull on bones or skin - Outermost protec9ve boundary
and produces gross body movements or facial EPIDERMIS
expression DERMIS
- voluntarily controlled MUCOUS (mucosae) (lungs)
CARDIAC - Moist membrane
- involuntarily controlled - open to the exterior body surface
- found only in the heart - adapted for absorp9on or secre9on
SMOOTH (VISCERAL) CONSTRUCTION
- involuntarily controlled Epithelium types depends on site
- Found in walls of hollow organs Loose connec9ve 9ssue (lamina propria)
- PERISTALSIS - series of wave-like muscle SEROUS (serosae) (internal)
contrac9ons - Line open body cavi9es that are closed to the
exterior of the body
NERVOUS TISSUE - separated by serous fluid, with a visceral (loob)
- to receive and conduct and parietal (labas) layer
o Irritability – respond to internal/external
o ConducDvity - transmit impulses and react SPECIFIC SEROUS MEMBRANES
to s9mulants. Peritoneum
TISSUE REPAIR - Abdominal cavity
1. Regenera9on - Replacement of destroyed Pleura
9ssue by the same kind of cells - Around the lungs
2. Fibrosis - Repair by dense (fibrous) connec9ve Pericardium (peri means heart)
9ssue (scar 9ssue) - Around the heart

NOTE!! CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

EPITHELIAL TISSUE – regenerates easily
SKELETAL MUSCLE – regenerates poorly
Whether regeneraDon or fibrosis occurs depends on:
1. Type of 9ssue damaged
2. Severity of the injury
CLEAN CUTS (incisions) heal more successfully than
ragged tears of the 9ssue
EVENTS OF TISSUE REPAIR
InflammaDon sets the stage
- Capillaries become very permeable
- CloPng proteins migrate into the area from the
bloodstream
- A clot walls off the injured area
GranulaDon Dssue forms
- Growth of new capillaries
- Rebuild collagen fibers
CHAPTER 4: SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES
BODY MEMBRANES -structure that covers body
membranes
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES (joints)
- Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
- Line bursae
- Line tendon sheaths
- Secrete a lubrica9ng fluid to cushion organs
moving against each other during muscle ac9vity
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (skin)
- Sweat glands
- Oil glands
- Hair
- Nails
FUNCTIONS
- Insulates (conserva9on of body heat) and cushion
deeper body organs
- Aids in loss or reten9on of body heat as
controlled by the nervous system
- Aids in excre9on of urea and uric acid
- Synthesizes vitamin D
Protects the enDre body from:
o Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
o Chemical damage (acids and bases)
o Thermal damage (heat or cold)
o Ultraviolet (UV) radia9on (sunlight)
o Microbes (bacteria)
o Desicca9on (drying out)

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE EPIDERMIS – outer layer

- Are simple organs - Hard & tough
- Covering and lining membranes - Stra9fied squamous epithelium
CUTANEOUS (skin) DERMIS – sandwiched between epidermis & hypo
- Dry membrane - Connec9ve 9ssue
 LAYERS OF DERMIS o Produce sebum (oil)
PAPILLARY LAYER § Makes skin sop and moist
- On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase § Prevents hair from becoming
fric9on and gripping ability briUle
- Fingerprints are iden9fying films of sweat § Kills bacteria
RETICULAR LAYER - Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
- Blood vessels o Produce sweat
- Sweat and oil glands o Widely distributed in skin
- Deep pressure receptors Eccrine glands
HYPODERMIS – subcutaneous layer Produce acidic sweat
- anchors the skin to underlying organs - Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste
- not technically part of the integumentary system - Func9on in body temperature regula9on
- Composed mostly of adipose 9ssue - Apocrine glands
- Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper § Ducts empty into hair follicles in the
9ssues armpit and genitals
§ Begin to func9on at puberty
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE – INTACT SKIN § Release sweat that also contains faUy
acids and proteins
MELANIN – pigment produces by melanocytes § Play a minimal role in body
- Color is yellow – brown – black temperature regula9on
MERKEL CELLS NAIL
- Associated with sensory nerve endings - Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
- serve as touch receptors – MERKEL DISCS
Three pigments contribute to skin color Sty- kuli9w
o Melanin
Yellow, reddish brown, or HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
black pigments Athlete’s foot
o Carotene - Caused by fungal infec9on (Tinea pedis)
§ Orange-yellow pigment from - Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
some vegetables Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
o Hemoglobin - Caused by inflamma9on of hair follicles
§ Red coloring from blood cells in - Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by
dermal capillaries bacteria
§ Oxygen content determines the Cold sores (fever blisters)
extent of red coloring - Caused by human herpesvirus 1
§ CYANOSIS - bluish - Blisters itch and s9ng
Contact dermaDDs
Redness(erythema) - Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke
- due to embarrassment, inflamma9on, allergic responses
hypertension, fever, or allergy - Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
Pallor (blanching) ImpeDgo
- due to emo9onal stress, anemia, low blood - Caused by bacterial infec9on
pressure, impaired blood flow to an area Psoriasis
Jaundice (yellow cast) - Triggered by trauma, infec9on, hormonal
- indicates a liver disorder changes, or stress
- Bruises (black and blue marks) —hematomas - Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery
scales that itch, burn, crack, or some9mes bleed
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
- Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands ANAPYHLAXIS - Severe allergic
o Sebaceous glands (secretes sebum-oil)
o Sweat glands BURNS
- Hair - Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat,
- Hair follicles electricity, UV radia9on, or chemicals
- Nails
- Sebaceous (oil) glands HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK - ↓ blood volume ↓ body
o Located all over the skin except for palms fluids (suka/tae)
and soles
CARDIOGENIC SHOCK – heart failure; can’t pump
oxygen to brain & vital parts
ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK – severe allergy
PSYCHOGENIC SHOCK – severe reac9on
CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Parts of the skeletal system
- Bones (skeleton)
- Joints
- Car9lages
- Ligaments
Two subdivisions of the skeleton
- Axial skeleton
- Appendicular skeleton
FUNCTIONS
- Support the body
- Protect sop organs
o Skull & vertebrae = brain & spinal cord
o Rib cage = thoracic cavity organs
- AUached skeletal muscles allow movement
- Store minerals and fats
o Calcium and phosphorus
o Fat in the internal marrow cavity
- Blood cell forma9on (hematopoiesis)
206 bones for adults
214 bones for kids
Two basic types of osseous (bone) Dssue
1. Compact bone
Dense, smooth, and homogeneous
2. Spongy bone
Small needlelike pieces of bone
Many open spaces
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
- LONG – longer than they are wide; spongey
bones at ends (all the bones in limbs)
- FLAT – thin & flaUened (chest)
- SHORT – cube-shaped (carpal & tarsal)
- IRREGULAR – irregular shape (hip bone)
Long bone anatomy
- DIAPHYSIS (SHAFT)
o Makes up most of bone’s length
o Composed of compact bone
- EPIPHYSIS (ENDS)
o spongy bone enclosed by thin layer of
compact bone
- ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
o Decreases fric9on at joint surfaces
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SPONGY BONE
- Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone
called trabeculae and open spaces
- open spaces are filled by marrow, blood vessels,
and nerves
STRUCTURE OF BONE
ORGANIC PARTS (collagen fibers)
- bone make bone flexible and have great tensile
strength
CALCUIM SALTS
- make bone hard to resist compression
FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING
OSSIFICATION - is the process of bone forma9on
MAJOR PHASES OF OSSIFICATION
- OSTEOBLASTS (bone-forming cells) cover hyaline
car9lage model with bone matrix
- Apposi9onal growth
o Bones grow in width
o OSTEOBLASTS in the periosteum add bone
matrix to the outside of the diaphysis
o OSTEOCLASTS in the endosteum remove
bone from the inner surface of the diaphysis
- Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such as
growth hormone and sex hormones
- Calcium ion regula9on
§ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
§ Released when calcium ion
levels in blood are low
§ Ac9vates osteoclasts (bone-
destroying cells)
§ Osteoclasts break down bone
and release calcium ions into
the blood
§ HYPERCALCEMIA (high blood calcium
levels) prompts calcium storage to
bones by osteoblasts
BONE FRACTURE
FRACTURE – break in a bone
CLOSED (simple) – does not penetrate
OPEN (compound) – penetrates through
CLOSED REDUCTION
- bones are manually coaxed into posi9on by
physician’s hands
OPEN REDUCTION
- bones are secured with pins or wires during
surgery
Healing 9me is 6–8 weeks
AXIAL SKELETON
- forms the longitudinal axis of the body
1. SKULL
- Cranium bones enclose the brain
- Facial bones
o Hold eyes in anterior posi9on
o Allow facial muscles to express feelings
- Mandible – freely movable joint
 THORACIC CAGE
8 CRANIAL BONES PROTECT THE BRAIN - Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of
1 Frontal bone the thoracic cavity
2 Occipital bone § Consists of three parts
3 Ethmoid bone 1. Sternum
4 Sphenoid bone 2. Ribs
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair) § True ribs (pairs 1–7)
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair) § False ribs (pairs 8–12)
§ Floa9ng ribs (pairs 11–12)
14 FACIAL BONES 3. Thoracic vertebrae
1, 2 Maxillae (pair)
3, 4 Pala9ne bones (pair)
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair)
7, 8 Zygoma9c bones (pair)
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)
11 Vomer bone
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair)
14 Mandible

PARANASAL SINUSES
- Hollow por9ons of bones surrounding the nasal
cavity
- Func9ons of paranasal sinuses
o Lighten the skull
o Amplify sounds made as we speak

HYOID BONE
- The only bone that does not ar9culate with
another bone
- Serves as a movable base for the tongue

VERTEBRAL COLUMN (Spine)

- Vertebral column provides axial support
o Extends from skull to the pelvis
- 26 vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the
lower back
o Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae)
o Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 vertebrae)

PRIMARY CURVATURES
§ Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and
sacral regions
§ Present from birth
§ Form a C-shaped curvature in
newborns

SECONDARY CURVATURES
§ Spinal curvatures of the cervical and
lumbar regions
§ Develop aper birth
§ Form an S-shaped curvature in adults